beliefs topic

definitions

• substantive = focuses on the belief in a supernatural power or God, exclusive    - western bias

• functional = focuses on social or psychological functions for an individual or society, inclusive     - suggests a football chant is a religion

• social construct = focuses on how members of society define religion, cannot produce a universal definition    + deeper meaning     - impossible to generalise

• beliefs = in the supernatural and/or incomprehensible powers e.g. God or sacred symbols e.g. the Cross

• theology = a set of teachings and beliefs

• practice = rituals of ceremonies to express beliefs

• institutions = some form of organisation of worshippers e.g. churches

• consequences = a set of moral or ethical values to guide everyday behaviour

belief systems

science

• open system = popper: scientific research is open to scrutiny, criticism and tested by others

• closed system = Kuhn: science is based on a single paradigm which is ridiculed if challenged, unless undermined by evidence

religion

• open system = able to adapt to social change. Herberg: may dilute beliefs to stay relevant, known as internal secularisation

• closed system = Horton: it contains ‘clauses’ that prevent it from being disproved in the eyes of believes

Polanyi: beliefs are self sustained as they have three devices to undermines any contradictory evidence

1. circularity = explaining religious ideas by using other religious components

2. subsidiary explanations = religious leaders redirect focus when being challenged with some sort of explanation that does not contradict the religion

3. denial of legitimacy to rivals = reject rival beliefs to show followers that they are only possible answer

Azande and witchcraft: case study by Evans-Pritchard

• Azande believe natural events are not coincidental or by chance

• misfortune is down to witchcraft

• this prevents grudges and encourages neighbourly behaviour

• e.g. westerners would believe a snake bit someone because they were walking in grass but the Azande would argue someone cast a spell on the snake

ideology

Marxism

• Marx = revolution cannot occur until the WC     develop a class consciousness

• Gramsci = ideological domination prevents class consciousness

• Abercombie = a fear of unemployment may prevent rebelling

postmodernism

• Lyotard = religion and science are meta-narratives. religious teachings are no longer accepted as ‘truth’ in postmodern society due to the growth of scientific fact

feminism

• Oakley = Bowlby’s maternal deprivation is an example of science acting as ideology, justifying gender inequality as children are damaged by working mothers

Mannheim

• all world views are produced without relation to everyday individuals so reflect the theorists view

• two types of world view:

1. ideological thought = justify tradition to resist social change

2. utopian thought = attempts to promote social change

science and religion

core principals:

1. pursuit of facts, supported by evidence

2. objective

3. studies the impact of cause-and-effect based on reliable data

impact of science on religion:

• can cause conflicts eg around medical treatments

• can be seen as contributing to secularisation

• disproved many religious beliefs about the beginning of the world

merton: science thrives as an institution as it is governed by CUDOS norms

• C = communism: scientific knowledge must be shared to grow

• U = universalism: scientific knowledge is judged by universal, objective criteria

• D = disinterestedness: scientists should publish honest findings, with no fraud or subjective bias

• OS = organised scepticism: all knowledge is open to scrutiny

aldridge: transition from religious to scientific explanations

1. theological stage = the world and human destiny are explained in terms of gods and spirits

2. metaphysical stage = people see the world as being guided by an abstract power and is the combination of people having scientific views, but believing in a higher power

3. scientific stage = scientific explanation based on observations and experiments which can be used to develop cause and effect relationships

perspectives on science and religion

• interpretivism = scientific knowledge is socially constructed by social groups Knorr-Cetina: laboratory experiments are highly constructed

• marxism = all ideologies are manipulated by the ruling class to maintain and reproduce inequality. most discoveries are fuelled by gaining mass profit

• feminism = ideologies promote patriarchy

• postmodernism = lyotard: science is no different to other religions as they claim to know the truth about the world

functionalist perspective

durkheim

• there is a fundamental distinction between the sacred and the profane (normal)

• worshipping symbols = worshipping society

• studied an Australian aboriginal clan who performed rituals involving a sacred totem

• regular shared experiences strengthen collective conscience

parsons

• helps people cope with unforeseen events and uncontrollable events and uncontrollable outcomes

• promotes consensus and social stability

bellah

• civil religion is a belief system that attaches sacred qualities to society itself

• creates stability in a multi-religion society

malinowski

• provides psychological functions to cope with stress in two situations

1. where the outcome is important but uncertain

2. at times of crises

• + emphasises positive functions

• - worsley: no sharp division between the sacred and the profane

• - hard to generalise to societies with 2+ functions

• - neglects negative functions e.g. oppression of women

marxist perspective

religion as an ideology

• justifies suffering as inevitable and god given, so will be favoured in the afterlife

• acts as an ideological state apparatus to legitimise the power of the ruling class

• lenin it is a ‘spiritual gin’ as it dulls the masses to keep them in their societal position, mystical fog that obscures reality

religion as a product of alienation

• religion is an opiate of the masses, as it cushions the pain of oppression and exploitation. it does this in three ways:

1. promises an eventual escape from suffering with a good afterlife

2. offers hope of supernatural intervention to solve problems on earth, encouraging people to accept their position

3. provides a religious explanation and justification for inequality

• existential security also causes people to become alienation as those with less security (e.g. in LEDC’s) have greater demand for religion

• + supported by hinduism and caste system

• - ignores positive functions

• - increasing secularisation: how much influence can it have in contemporary society?

neo-marxist perspective

• neo-marxists agree with marxism that religion exploits the poor, but they criticise marxism as religion is not always part of the superstructure so the working class don’t always go along with the ruling class system

dual nature of religion

• Bloch = religion is an expression of ‘the principle of hope’ : our dreams of a better life that contain images of Utopia, deceiving people with false promises of rewards in heaven

• Gramsci = the ruling class use hegemony (dominance) to establish consent but the vision of a better world may motivate people to challenge the powerful

religion as a force for social change

• maduro = in societies where religion is dominant, the ruling class can only be overpowered with the support of the churches

• liberation theology = a movement in Christian theology which attempts to address the problems of poverty and social injustice e.g. overthrowing the communist regime in 1980’s Poland

• + explains how religion can lead to social change

• - feminists argue gender is a larder factor than social class

feminist perspective

maintain patriarchy

• sacred texts mainly consist of strong, powerful males

• religious laws restrict female rights, such as dress codes

• in Islam, menstruating women cannot touch the Qur’an

• orthodox Judaism forbid women becoming priests

• + Armstrong = women’s exclusion from priesthood is evidence for marginalisation

• - Wood = the hijab symbolises resistance to oppression

second class believers

• De Beauvior = religion maintains gender inequality by making women think they are equal to men in the of god and will be compensated in the after life so they don’t challenge their position

stained glass ceiling

• women are often found at the bottom of the religious career ladder

• there was no female priests in the church of England until 2015, and still was only an ‘assistant’ priest

• - assumes all religions are patriarchal, the Greek believe in many goddesses

postmodernist perspective

• Lyotard = many religions see themselves as the true representation of god and do not tolerate challenges from rivals, so are usually conservative and inflexible

• Lyon = religious leaders turn to the media to publicise their belief system, which has created a spiritual marketplace for people to move around religions to find which one suits their identity. religious ideas have been disembedded as the media lifts them from their original context

• NAMs = there has been a dramatic decline in institutional religion as people become spiritual shoppers

• pick and mix = people pick and mix beliefs and buy into, or reject, beliefs that most suit their lifestyle choices and the identity they want to project

• - Bruce = they have over exaggerated the demise of traditional religions

religion as a conservative force

functionalist

• durkheim = all societies divide the world into the sacred and the profane, helping with value consensus that promotes social order and stability

• malinowski = religion provides an explanation for events that would otherwise be unexplainable and provide security in the face of uncertainty

• parsons = provides and underpins core values of culture norms, while providing a ‘mechanism of adjustment’

marxist

• religion acts as an ‘opium of the people’ by cushioning the pain of oppression by promising an eventful escape, offering solutions to problems on earth and explaining inequalities

• it legitimises the power of the ruling class by suiggesting inequalities are god given and cannot be challenged without challenging god

interpretivist

• berger = provides a universe of meaning whihc helps people make more sense of the world, creating a theodicy, but religion is now losing its role as a provider of a universe of meaning in modern society

feminist

• many religions serve male interests, with beliefs that justify, reinforce and reproduce inequalities

• this is achieved via subordinate roles in sacred texts, exclusion or restriction from higher levels of religious hierarchy and religious laws that give women fewer rights

religion as a compensator

• stark and bainbridge = religions meets the needs of individuals when their sense of social order is disrupted by hardship e.g. death

• religion is a general compensator, a belief that if individuals act in a certain way, they will eventually be rewarded, which inevitably contributes to social order

religion as a force for social change

Calvinist beliefs:

• Weber

• predestination = god has already decided who will be going to heaven or hell, and those selected to go to heaven are called ‘the elect’

• Devine transcendence = god is so beyond this world that there is no way to understand what he is thinking or has decided

• worldly asceticism = a calling to a career path as a religious duty

• Calvinism led to capitalism as Calvinists were ascetic so saved all of their wealth, and so they used this money to invest and become richer and so forth. they carried this on as they felt that this wealth was god’s way of saying he was happy with their hard work

• - Kautsky = Weber underestimates economic factors as capitalism precedes Calvinism

is religion a force for social change, or a conservative force?

mcguire / robinson = factors that determine if religion is a conservative force or a force for social change:

1. the nature and extent of religious beliefs = if most people hold religious beliefs and it has a strong moral codes that conflict the rest of society, it is more likely to lead to social change

2. significance of religion in a culture = if religion is central to society it is more likely to be used to justify behaviour and act as a conservative force

3. extent of the social involvement of religion = if religion figures play a role in political and economic life, it is more likely to influence social change

4. degree of central authority in religious organisations = if it is at the centre of society, it has the power to promote or prevent change

5. degree of central authority in religious organisations

religion and social protest

american civil rights movement

• 1960/70s

• led by dr martin luther king

• used religion as an ideological resource, appealing to all christians

• why it worked: peaceful protest, achieved public support, negotiated with opposition, shamed those who had conflicting prejudicial values

new christian right

• 1960s

• believed certain behaviours are immoral and should be illegal

• e.g. homosexuality, divorce, abortion, teach of sex ed / evolution

• reasons for failure: negative message tone led to criticism by the media, lack of corporation

liberation theology

• 1960/70s