Cram Packet
Scientific Foundations & Biological Basis
Psychology: derived from physiology and philosophy.
Early Approaches:
Structuralism: used introspection to determine mind structures.
Functionalism: analyzed the purpose of behavior.
Approaches:
Psychoanalytic/dynamic: unconscious, childhood.
Behavioral: learned, reinforced.
Humanistic: free will, choice, ideal, actualization.
Cognitive: perceptions, thoughts.
Evolutionary: genes.
Biological: brain, neurotransmitters (NTs).
Sociocultural: society.
Biopsychosocial: combo of above.
People:
Mary Calkins: First Fem. Pres. of APA.
Charles Darwin: Natural selection & evolution.
Dorothea Dix: Reformed mental institutions in U.S.
Stanley Hall: 1st pres. of APA, 1st journal.
William James: Father of American Psychology – functionalist.
Wilhelm Wundt: Father of Modern Psychology – structuralist.
Margaret Floy Washburn: 1st fem. PhD.
Christine Ladd Franklin: 1st fem.
Terms:
Basic research: purpose is to increase knowledge.
Applied research: purpose is to help people.
Psychologist: research or counseling – MS or PhD.
Psychiatrist: prescribe medications and diagnose – M.D.
Research Design
Experiment:
Adv: controls variables.
Disadv: difficult to generalize.
Independent Variable: altered by researcher.
Experimental Group: received the treatment.
Control Group: placebo, baseline.
Placebo Effect: behaviors associated with the exp. group when having received placebo.
Dependent Variable: measured variable.
Double-Blind: neither participant or experimenter aware of conditions.
Single-Blind: only participant blind.
Operational Definition: clear, precise definition of variables.
Confound: error/flaw in study.
Random Assignment: minimizes bias.
Random Sample: minimizes bias, everyone has a chance to take part.
Representative Sample: mimics the general population.
Correlation:
Adv: identify relationship between two variables.
Disadv: no cause and effect (CORRELATION DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION).
Positive Correlation: variables increase & decrease together.
Negative Correlation: as one variable increases the other decreases.
The stronger the # the stronger the relationship REGARDLESS of the pos/neg sign. Cannot be < or > than 1.
3rd variable problem (lurking variable): diff. variable is responsible for relationship.
Illusory correlation: belief of correlation that doesn’t exist.
Naturalistic Observation:
Adv: real-world validity.
Disadv: no cause and effect.
Case Study:
Adv: studies ONE person in detail.
Disadv: no cause and effect.
Descriptive Stats:
Measures of Central Tendency:
Mean: Average.
Median: Middle #.
Mode: occurs most often.
Inferential Statistics: establishes significance.
Statistical significance: results not due to chance.
Ethical Guidelines (APA):
Confidentiality: names kept secret.
Informed Consent: must agree to be part of study.
Debriefing: must be told the true purpose of the study.
Deception must be warranted.
No harm– mental/physical.
Neuron
Neuron: Basic cell of the nervous system (NS).
Dendrites: Receive incoming signal.
Soma: Cell body (includes nucleus).
Axon: AP travels down this.
Myelin Sheath: speeds up AP down axon, protects axon, MS destroys this.
Terminals: release NTs – send signal onto next neuron.
Vesicles: sacs inside terminal contain NTs.
Synapse: gap b/w neurons.
Action Potential: movement of Na and K ions, electrical charge down axon.
All or none law: stimulus must trigger the AP past its threshold, but does not increase the intensity of the response.
Refractory period: neuron must rest and reset.
Interneurons: cells in the spinal cord. Responsible for the reflex loop.
Central NS: Brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral NS: Rest of the NS.
Somatic NS: Voluntary movement.
Autonomic NS: Involuntary (heart, lungs, etc).
Sympathetic NS: Arouses the body for fight/flight.
Parasympathetic NS: Establishes homeostasis after a sympathetic response.
Neurotransmitters (NT)
Neurotransmitters (NT): Chemicals released in the synaptic gap, received by neurons.
GABA: Major inhibitory NT.
Glutamate: Major Excitatory NT.
Dopamine: Reward & movement.
Serotonin: Moods and emotion.
Acetylcholine (ACh): Memory.
Epinephrine & Norepinephrine: sympathetic NS arousal.
Endorphins: Pain control.
Oxytocin: Love and bonding.
Agonist: drug that mimics a NT.
Antagonist: drug that blocks a NT.
Reuptake: unused NTs are taken back up into the sending neuron.
Areas of the Brain
Hindbrain: oldest part of the brain.
Cerebellum: movement/balance.
Medulla: vital organs (HR, BP).
Pons: sleep/arousal.
Midbrain
Reticular formation: alertness.
Forebrain: higher thought processes.
Limbic System:
Amygdala: emotions, fear.
Hippocampus: memory.
Hypothalamus: reward/pleasure center, eating behaviors – link to the endocrine system.
Thalamus: relay center for all but smell.
Cerebral Cortex: outer portion of the brain – higher order thought processes.
Occipital Lobe: vision
Frontal Lobe: decision making, planning, judgment, movement, personality.
Parietal Lobe: sensations.
Temporal Lobe: hearing and face recognition
Somatosensory Cortex: map of our sensory receptors.
Motor Cortex: map of our motor receptors.
Left hemisphere only – damage results in aphasia (damaged speech)
Broca’s Area: Inability to produce speech.
Wernicke’s Area: can’t comprehend speech.
Corpus Callosum: bundle of nerves that connects the 2 hemispheres.
Split-brain experiments: done by Sperry & Gazzaniga.
Image shown to the R eye is processed in the L hemi – patient can say what they saw; image shown to the L eye processed in R hemi, can’t say what was seen.
Brain Plasticity: Brain can “heal” itself.
Nature Vs. Nurture
Nature vs. Nurture: ANSWER IS BOTH
Twin Studies:
Identical twins – Monozygotic (MZ).
Fraternal twins – Dizygotics (DZ).
Genetics: MZ twins will have a higher percentage of also developing a disease.
Environment: MZ twins raised in different environments show differences
Endocrine system: sends hormones throughout the body.
Pituitary Gland: Controlled by hypothalamus. Releases growth hormones.
Adrenal Glands: related to sympathetic NS: releases adrenaline.
Brain Imaging
Brain Imaging:
EEG: brain activity – not specific.
XRAY: not useful, doesn’t show tissues.
CT / MRI: shows structures (tumors).
PET: glucose shows brain activity.
fMRI: glucose shows activity: real time
Lesion: destruction of brain tissue.
States of Consciousness:
Higher-Level: controlled processes – totally aware.
Lower-Level: automatic processing.
Altered States: produced through drugs, fatigue, hypnosis.
Subconscious: Sleeping and dreaming.
No awareness: Knocked out.
Sleep:
Beta Waves: awake.
Alpha Waves: high amp., drowsy.
NREM (non-REM) stages- Stage 1: light sleep Stage 2: bursts of sleep spindles Stage 3 Delta waves: Deep sleep.
Rapid Eye Movement (REM): dreaming, cognitive processing. Entire cycle takes 90 minutes, REM occurs in b/w each cycle. REM lasts longer throughout the night.
Sensation & Perception
Circadian Rhythm: 24-hour biological clock.
Body temp & sleep.
Controlled by the Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) in the brain.
Explains jet lag.
Sleep Disorders:
Insomnia: Inability to fall asleep.
Sleep walking/talking: NOT during REM.
Night terrors: extreme nightmares – NOT in REM sleep.
Narcolepsy: fall asleep out of nowhere.
Sleep Apnea: stop breathing suddenly while asleep.
Dream Theories:
Freud’s Unconscious Wish Fulfillment: Dreaming is gratification of unconscious desires and needs.
Latent Content: hidden meaning.
Manifest Content: obvious storyline.
Activation Synthesis: Brain produces random bursts of energy – stimulating lodged memories in the limbic sys. Dreams start random then develop meaning.
Psychoactive Drugs:
Triggers dopamine release in the brain.
Depressants: Alcohol, barbiturates, tranquilizers, opiates (narcotics).
Stimulants: Amphetamines, Cocaine, MDMA (ecstasy), Caffeine, Nicotine.
Hallucinogens: LSD, Marijuana.
Tolerance: needing more of a drug to achieve the same effects.
Dependence: become addicted to the drug.
Withdrawal: Psychological and physiological symptoms associated with sudden stoppage.
Absolute Threshold: detection of signal 50% of the time.
Difference Threshold: two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum proportion (Weber’s Law).
Signal Detection Theory
Sensory Adaptation: diminished sensitivity as a result of constant stimulation.
Sensory Habituation: diminished sensitivity due to regular exposure.
Perceptual Set (mental set): tendency to see something as part of a group.
Inattentional Blindness: failure to notice something added b/c you’re so focused on another task.
Change Blindness: failure to notice a change in the scene.
Cocktail party effect: notice your name across the room when its spoken, when you weren’t previously paying attention
Visual System
Visual System:
Cornea – protects the eye.
Pupil/iris – controls amount of light entering eye.
Lens – focuses light on retina.
Retina – contains rods and cones.
Fovea – area of best vision (cones here).
Rods – black/white, dim light.
Cones – color, bright light (red, green, blue).
Bipolar cells – connect rods/cones and ganglion cells.
Ganglion cells – opponent-processing occurs here.
Blind spot – occurs where the optic nerve leaves the eye.
Feature detectors – specialized cells that see motion, shapes, lines, etc. located in occipital lobe.
Theories of Color Vision:
Trichromatic – three cones for receiving color (blue, red, green).
Explains color blindness - they are missing a cone type
Opponent Process – complementary colors are processed in ganglion cells – explains why we see an after image
Visual Capture: visual system overwhelms all others.
Constancies: recognize that objects do not physically change despite changes in sensory input.
Phi Phenomenon: adjacent lights blink on/off in succession – looks like movement.
Stroboscopic movement: motion produced by a rapid succession of slightly varying images.
Monocular Cues:
Interposition: overlapping images appear closer.
Relative Size: 2 objects that are usually similar in size, the smaller one is further away.
Relative Clarity: hazy objects appear further away.
Texture Gradient: coarser objects are closer.
Relative Height: things higher in our field of vision look further away.
Linear Perspective: parallel lines converge with distance.
Binocular Cues:
Retinal Disparity: Image is cast slightly different on each retina, location of image helps us determine depth.
Convergence: Eyes strain more (looking inward) as objects draw nearer.
Top-Down Processing: Whole -> smaller parts.
Bottom-Up Processing: Smaller Parts -> Whole
Auditory System
Auditory system:
Pathway of sound: sound --> pinna --> auditory canal --> ear drum (tympanic membrane) --> hammer, anvil, stirrup (HAS) --> oval window --> cochlea --> auditory nerve --> temporal lobes.
Outer Ear: pinna (ear), auditory canal.
Middle Ear: ear drum, HAS (bones vibrate to send signal).
Inner Ear: cochlea – sounds 1st processed here.
Theories of Hearing:
Place theory – location where hair cells bends determines sound (high pitches).
Frequency theory – rate at which action potentials are sent determines sound (low pitches).
Other Senses
Touch: Mechanoreceptors --> spinal cord --> thalamus --> somatosensory cortex.
Pain (nociception):
Gate-control theory: we have a “gate” to control how much pain is experienced
Kinesthetic (proprioception): Sense of body position.
Vestibular: Sense of balance.
Taste (gustation): 5 taste receptors: bitter, salty, sweet, sour, umami (savory).
Smell (olfaction): goes to temporal lobe and amygdala ONLY sense that does NOT route through the thalamus 1st..
Gestalt Psychology
Gestalt Psychology: Whole is greater than the sum of its parts Gestalt Principles.
Figure/ground: organize information into figures objects (figures) that stand apart from surrounds (back ground).
Closure: mentally fill in gaps.
Proximity: group things together that appear near each other.
Similarity: group things together based off of looks.
Continuity: tendency to mentally form a continuous line.
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning: PAVLOV!
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): causes response w/o needing to be learned (food).
Unconditioned Response (UCR): response that naturally occurs w/o training (salivate).
Neutral Response (NS): stimulus that normally doesn’t evoke a response (bell).
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): once NS that now brings about a response (bell).
Conditioned Response (CR): response after conditioning, follows a CS (salivate).
Contiguity: Timing of the pairing, NS/CS must be presented .5-1 sec BEFORE the US
Acquisition: process of learning the response pairing
Extinction: previously conditioned response dies out over time
Spontaneous Recovery: After a period of time the CR comes back out of nowhere
Generalization: CR to like stimuli (similar sounding bell)
Discrimination: CR to ONLY the CS
Contingency Model: Rescorla & Wagner – classical conditioning involves cognitive processes
Conditioned Taste Aversion (ONE-TRIAL LEARNING): John Garcia – Innate predispositions can allow classical conditioning to occur in one trial
John Watson (father of behaviorism) & Little Albert: conditioned a fear in a baby – eventually leads to behavioral treatments for fear (counterconditioning)
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning: SKINNER!
Law of Effect (Thorndike): Behaviors followed by pos. outcomes are strengthened, neg. outcomes weaken a behavior
Principles of Operant Cond:
Pos. Reinforcement: Add something nice to increase a behavior.
Neg. Reinforcement: Take away something bad/annoying to increase a behavior.
Pos. Punishment: Add something bad to decrease a behavior.
Neg. Punishment: Take away something good to decrease a behavior.
Primary Reinforcers: innately satisfying (food and water).
Secondary Reinforcers: everything else (stickers, high-fives).
Token Reinforcer: type of secondary- can be exchanged for other stuff (game tokens or money).
Generalization: respond to similar stimulus for reward.
Discrimination: stimulus signals when behavior will or will not be reinforced
Extinction / Spontaneous Recovery: same as classical conditioning
Overjustification Effect: reinforcing behaviors that are intrinsically motivating causes you to stop doing them
Shaping: use successive approximations to train behavior
Continuous Reinforcement schedule: Receive reward for every response
Fixed Ratio schedule: Reward every X number of response
Fixed Interval schedule: Reward every X amount of time passed
Variable Ratio schedule: Rewarded after a random number of responses
Variable Interval schedule: Rewarded after a random amount of time has passed
Variable schedules are most resistant to extinction
Social (Observational) Learning: BANDURA!
Modeling Behaviors: Children model (imitate) behaviors.
Prosocial – helping behaviors
Antisocial – mean behaviors
Misc Learning Types:
Latent learning (Tolman!) – learning is hidden until useful
Cognitive maps – mental representation of an area, allows navigation if blocked
Insight learning (Kohler!) – some learning is through simple intuition
Learned Helplessness (Seligman!) – no matter what you do you never get a positive outcome so you just give up
Encoding
Encoding: Getting info into memory
Automatic encoding – requires no effort
Effortful encoding – requires attention
Shallow, intermediate, deep processing: the more emphasis on MEANING the deeper the processing, and the better remembered
Imagery – attaching images to information makes it easier to remember
Self-referent encoding – we better remember what we’re interested in
Dual encoding – combining different types of encoding aids in memory
Chunking – break info into smaller units to aid in memory
Mnemonics – shortcuts to help us remember info easier
Acronyms – using letter to remember something
Method of loci – using locations to remember a list of items in order
Peg-word – using a rhyme w/ imagery to remember lists in order
Context-dependent memory – where you learn the info you best remember the info
State-dependent memory – the physical state you were in when learning is the way you should be when testing
Storage: Retaining info over time
Information Processing Model – Sensory memory, short-term memory, long term memory model
Sensory Memory – stores all incoming stimuli that you receive (first you have to a pay attention)
Iconic Memory – visual memory, lasts 0.3 seconds
Echoic Memory – auditory memory, lasts 2-3 seconds
Short-Term Memory – info passes from sensory memory to STM – lasts 30 secs, and can remember 7 ± 2 items
Rehearsal (repeating the info) resets the clock
Working Memory Model splits STM into 2 – visual spatial memory (from iconic mem) and phonological loop (from echoic mem). A “central executive” puts it together before passing it to LTM
Long term memory – lasts a lifetime
Explicit (Declarative): Conscious recollection
Episodic: events
Semantic: facts
Implicit (Nondeclarative): unconscious recollection
Classical conditioning
Priming: info that is seen earlier “primes” you to remember something later on
Procedural: skills
Memory organization
Hierarchies: memory is stored according to a hierarchy
Semantic networks: linked memories are stored together
Schemas: pre-existing mental concept of how something should look (like a restaurant)
Memory storage
Acetylcholine neurons in the hippocampus for most memories
Cerebellum for procedural memories
Long-term potentiation: neural basis of memory – connections are strengthened over time with repeated stimulation
Retrieval: Taking info out of storage
Serial Position Effect: tendency to remember the beginning (primacy effect) and the end (recency effect) of the list best
Recall: remember what you’ve been told w/o cues (essays)
Recognition: remember what you’ve been told w/ cues (MC)
Flashbulb memories: particularly vivid memories for highly important events
Repressed memories: unconsciously buried memories – are unreliable
Encoding failure: forget info b/c you never encoded it (paid attention to it) in the first place
Encoding specificity principle: the more closely retrieval cues match the way we learned the info, the better we remember the info
Forgetting curve: recall decreases rapidly at first, then reaches a plateau after which little more is forgotten
Proactive interference OLD blocks new
Retroactive interference NEW blocks old
Misinformation effect: distortion of memory by suggestion or misinformation
Framing: the way a question is framed impacts how info is recalled / perceived
Anterograde amnesia: amnesia moves forward (forget new info)
Retrograde amnesia: amnesia moves backwards (forget old info)
Alzheimer’s Disease: caused by destruction of acetylcholine in hippocampus
Theories of Language
Language
Phonemes: Smallest unit of sound
Morpheme: smallest unit that caries meaning
Grammar: rules in a language that enable us to communicate
Semantics: set of rules by which we derive meaning
Syntax: rules for combining words into sentences
Babbling stage: 1st stage of speech
One-word stage: duh
Two-word stage: duh duh (telegraphic speech)
Theories of language development:
Imitation: Kids repeat what they hear – but they don’t do it perfectly
Overregularization: grammar mistake where children over-use certain morphemes
Operant conditioning: reinforced for language use
Inborn universal grammar: Noam Chomsky – says that language is innate; we are predisposed to learn it
Critical period: period of time where something must be learned or else it cannot ever happen
Linguistic determinism: language influences the way we think developed by Whorf
Theories of Thinking
Thinking
Metacognition: Thinking about (reflecting upon) the way you think
Concepts: mental categories used to group objects, events, characteristics
Prototypes: all instances of a concept are compared to an ideal example
Algorithms: step by step strategies that guarantee a solution
Heuristics: short cut strategy (rule of thumb)
Representative Heuristic: make inferences based on your experience – assume someone must be a librarian b/c they’re quiet
Availability heuristic: relying on availability to judge the frequency of something – overestimating death due to plane crashes due to recent events.
Functional Fixedness: keep using one strategy – cannot think outside of the box
Belief bias: tendency of one’s preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning by making invalid conclusions
Belief perseverance: tendency to cling to our beliefs in the face on contrary evidence
Confirmation bias: look for evidence to support what we already believe
Inductive reasoning: data-driven decisions, specific to general
Deductive reasoning: driven by logic, general to specific
Divergent thinking: ability to think about many different things at once (Creative)
Convergent thinking: limits creativity – one answer
Individual Theories About Intelligence
Individual Theories About Intelligence
Galton: 1st to suggest intelligence was inherited. Intelligence based on muscle strength, size of head, reaction time, etc.
Cattell: 2 clusters of mental abilities
Crystalized Intelligence: reasoning and verbal skills - what you learn in school – the cold hard (like crystals!) facts, increase w/ time
Fluid intelligence: spatial abilities, rote memory, things that come natural to you – can’t learn in school. decrease over time
Spearman’s G Factor: said a general intelligence (g) underlies all mental abilities
Gardner: multiple intelligences (8): linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, intrapersonal (self), interpersonal (social), naturalist
Sternberg: Triarchic Theory
Analytical: mental components to solve problems, what IQ tests assess
Practical: ability to size up new situations and adapt to real-life demands
Creative: intellectual and motivational processes that lead to novel solutions, idea, products
Binet: developed 1st intelligence test, combined w/ Terman – developed the Stanford-Binet IQ test
Chronological age = actual age
Mental age = tested age compared to other of that age
100 is average
Wechsler: developed the WAIS and WISC – most commonly used today
Flynn effect: IQ has steadily risen over the past 80 years
Extremes of Intelligence: high IQ = above 135; intellectually disadvantage = below 70
Causes of mild intellectual disadvantage:
PKU – liver fails to produce an enzyme needed to breakdown chemicals – leads to brain damage
Down syndrome – extra copy of 21st chromosome
Fragile X – higher chance in boys due to ONE X chromosome
Influence on IQ:
Genetics: MZ twins have similar IQ, adopted kids more similar to biological parents
Environment: early neglect leads to lower IQ, good schooling to higher IQ
Psychological Testing
Psychological Testing:
Types of Tests:
Aptitude: predicts your abilities to learn a new skill
Achievement: tests what you know
Test Creation:
Standardization: administer a test to a representative sample of future test takers to establish a basis for meaningful comparison
Should be reliable: same results over time
Split-half reliability: compare two halves of the test
Test-retest reliability: use the same test on 2 different occasions
Should be valid: test is accurate – measures what it is intended to
Content validity: test measures what you want it to
Predictive validity: test is able to accurately predict a trait
Standardized tests establish a normal distribution
Standard deviations are used to compare scores. Standard deviation measures how much the scores vary from the mean. The percentages stay the same in every curve
Prenatal Development
Prenatal Development:
Zygote: 0 – 14 days, cells are dividing
Embryo: until about 9 weeks, vital organs are being formed
Fetus: 9 wks to birth, overall development
Teratogens: external agents that can cause abnormal prenatal development (alcohol, drugs, etc)
Fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS): large amount of alcohol leads to FAS, causes deformities, mental disability, death
Physical Development:
Maturation: natural course of development, occurs no matter what
Reflexes: innate responses we’re born with:
Rooting, sucking, swallowing, grasping, stepping, babinski
Eyes have the most limited development, takes till 1 year
Visual cliff: babies have to learn depth perception, so they will cross a “cliff”
Other senses are fairly developed
Brain development continues for a few years
Theories of Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget’s Cognitive Dev.
Schemas – concepts or frameworks that organize info
Assimilation: incorporate new info into existing schema
Accommodation: adjust existing schemas to incorporate new information
Sensorimotor Stage: Birth to 2 years: focused on exploring the world around them
Lack Object Permanence: Objects when removed from the field of view are thought to disappear
Dev. sense of self: by 2 yrs can recognize themselves in the mirror
Pre-operational Stage: 2 – 7 years: use pretend play, developing language, using intuitive reasoning
Lack Conservation: recognize that substances remain the same despite changes in shape, length, or position
Lack Reversibility: cannot do reverse operations
Are egocentric: inability to distinguish one’s own perspective from another’s – think everyone sees what they see
Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11 yrs: use operational thinking, classification, and can think logical in concrete context
Formal Operational Stage: 11-15 yrs: use abstract and idealist thoughts, hypothetical-deductive reasoning
Problems with Piaget’s theory: stages to discrete, dev. differs b/w kids
Vygotsky’s Theory: cognitive development is a social process too, need to interact w/ others
Zone of Proximal Development: gap b/w what a child can do on their own and w/ support. Need scaffolding (teachers)
Socioemotional Development
Socioemotional Development
Temperament: patterns of emotional reactions and babies (precursor to personality)
Imprinting: baby geese believe the first thing they see after hatching is their mom – happens during a critical period (from Lorenz)
Harry Harlow: discovered that contact comfort is more important than feeding (monkeys fed on wire or cloth mothers). Monkeys raised in isolation couldn’t socialize
Baumrind: parenting styles
Authoritarian: rules & obedience, “my way or the highway” – kids lack initiative in college
Permissive: kids do whatever – no rules – kids lack initiative in college
Authoritative: give and take w/ kids – kids become socially competent and reliable
Mary Ainsworth: developed the strange situation paradigm.
Secure attachment (60% of infants): upset when mom leaves, easily calmed on return. Tend to be more stable adults
Avoidant attachment (20% infants): actively avoids mom, doesn’t care when she leaves
Ambivalent attachment(10% infants): actively avoids mom, freaks out when she leaves
Disorganized attachment (5%): confused, fearful, dazed – result of abuse
Kohlberg’s Moral Dev
Preconventional morality: Children: they follow rules to avoid punishment
Conventional morality: adolescents: follow rules b/c rules exist to keep order
Postconventional morality: adults: they do what they believe is right (even if it goes against society)
Carol Gilligan: said moral reasoning and moral behaviors are two different things (what you say isn’t always what you do)
Erikson’s Socioemotional Dev.: 8 stages, each stage represents a crisis that must be resolved.
Trust vs Mistrust (birth – 18 months): if needs are dependably met infants dev basic trust
Autonomy vs shame & doubt (1 -3 yrs): toddlers learn to exercise their will and think for themselves
Initiative vs guilt (3-6 yrs): learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans
Industry vs inferiority (6 yrs to puberty): learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks
Identity vs role confusion: (adolescence thru 20s): refine a sense of self by testing roles and forming an identity
Intimacy vs isolation: (20s—40s): form close relationships and gain capacity for love
Generativity vs stagnation: (40s-60s): discover sense of contributing to the world, thru family & work
Integrity vs despair: (60s and up): reflect on your life, feel satisfaction or failure
Puberty! (rapid skeletal and sexual maturation)
Primary sex characteristics: necessary structures for reproduction (ovaries, testicles, vagina, penis)
Secondary sex characteristics: nonreproductive characteristics that dev during puberty (breasts, hips, deepening of voice, body hair)
Frontal lobe continuous dev (not fully developed till 25)
Gender Development: sex = chromosomes, gender = what you identify yourself as
Gender roles: expected behaviors (norms) for men/women
Social learning theory: we learn gender roles and identity from those around us
Aging:
Cellular clock theory: cells have a maximum # of divisions before they can’t divide anymore
Free-radical theory: unstable oxygen molecules w/in cells damage DNA
Over time skills decrease (reaction time, memory)
Cross-sectional Study: studies ppl of different ages at the same point in time
Adv: inexpensive & quick
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