AP bio

Unit 1:

Lesson 1: Water

  • Capillary action (cappilaries) occurs through cohesion (water using itself sticking to each other to move higher) and adhesion (water sticking to a surface and finding space to fill in and move up)

  • Surface Tension is formed by water molecules moving closer together because the hydrogen at surface have nothing to bond to so the water molecule bunches up together (cohesion)

  • Water is a solvent because of its polarity (water can bond to anything or be hydrophillic to anything as long as it has a charge of some sort or is polar ) With a charge either the (-) side of the oxygen bonds to a (+) side of a solute or the (+) side of the hydrogen bonds to the (-) side of a solute

  • Water is only hydrophobic if the solute has no charge or no partial charges (no areas for hydrogen bonding to occur) or nonpolar substances

  • High specific heat is because in order for water to heat up the hydrogen bonds have to break (once the hydrogen bonds break, gas is realized, aka evoporative cooling)

  • When water is cooled hydrogen bonds expand (bad for cells because that means membranes and cellular parts expand and burst the cell) kinda like when you take a liquid and put it into the freezer and the container cracks

  • Electronegative (electron greedy) that is water

Lesson 2: Elements

  • Elements (carbon, gold, iron) → smallest part is atom

  • Valence electrons are formed by taking electrons (equal to protons) and subtracting the 2 electrons that fit on the first shell the remaining are on the outer shell and are valence electrons that determine charge

Functional groups:

  • Hydroxyl group: OH group, partially negative with Oxygen and partially positive with Hydrogen (Polar and good for hydrogen bonding)

  • Carbonyl group: (C = O) is polar , way to identify a sugar, since oxygen electronegative it hogs carbons electrons

  • Carboxyl group: (C=O same C—O—H) or (COOH) found in amino acids, a mix of a carbonyl and hydroxyl group (acidic) (strongly hydrophillic) (release H+ into solution which is why their acidic)

  • Amino group: ( H— N — H for example) is basic (greater ph than 7) (Removes H+ from solution which is why its basic)

  • Phosphate groups: (phosphate bonded to many oxygens) is acidic bc it releases H+ into solution

Lesson 3: Macromolecule basics

  • Polymers form thru dehydration synthesis

  • Polymers break down to form monomers thru hydrolysis

  • Enzymes with -ase often break down bonds

  • Chitin is a polysaccharide

Lesson 4: Monomer and Polymer descriptions

DNA

  • DNA is made up of a phosphate group and a sugar on both strands and the 2 strands are put together by nitrogenous bases

  • In each nitrogenous base is where the base pairing occurs (A → T or C → G)

  • DNA is antiparrelell (mirrored) you count 3’ to 5’ by counting each line of the carbon one will be 3 and will be on the sugar while the other one will be connecting the sugar to the phosphate group hence 3 and 5 prime

RNA

  • For DNA to be RNA the strand has to have hydroxyl groups on the ends of each sugar instead of just a hydrogen as seen in DNA (along with different base pairs, uracil)

BOTH

  • With both DNA and RNA base pairs are connected by hydrogen bonds

Proteins:

  • Proteins are made up by protein synthesis (transcription and translation)

  • The r group is the group connected to the Carbon and contains a lot more than jus hydrogen (ussually found on the bottom)

  • In the r group if there is an OH or hydroxyl group it means its hydrophillic if not and there are hydrocarbons found in r group they are hydrophobic

  • Peptide bonds combine amino acids

  • Hemoglobin is a protein (transport of o2 from rbcs)

Primary structure: order of amino acids

Secondary structure: from interactions of peptide backbone (where bending and folding takes place) forms alpha helix or beta pleated sheets

Tertiary structure: r side chain interactions (more interactions that have not been occured in 2nd structure)

Quaternary strucutre: arrangement of multiple peptide chains

Carbohydrates:

  • CHO 1:2:1

  • Monosaccharide (most common glucose)

  • Disaccharide (between 2 carbs is a glycosidic linkage) (also known as a covalent bond for disaccharides)

  • Common disaccharides include maltose, lactose, and surcose

  • Common polysaccharides include chitin, glycogen, and cellulose

Lipids

  • Triglycerides → fats or oils

  • triglycerides are made off 3 fatty acids

Saturated Fats: (butter) solid at room temp (no double bonds) has as many hydrogens as possible or satturated with hydrogens (unhealthier)

Unsaturated Fats (liquid at room temp) (has double bonds) less hydrogen bonds so is less saturated with hydrogens making it more likely to be liquid