AP Comparative Government: Russia Comprehensive Study Guide

Social, Economic, and Demographic Trends

• Demographic Crisis and Adult Mortality     - Russia faces a significant demographic crisis characterized by high adult mortality, particularly among the male population.     - Primary Driver: High alcohol consumption is the leading cause. Historically, high rates of alcoholism are associated with violence and diseases such as heart disease.     - Context: These trends were notably severe following the post-Soviet collapse, and while diet and healthcare issues contribute, alcoholism remains the primary factor for unusually low male life expectancy.

• Economic Structure and the Rentier State     - Russia's economic growth and government revenue are primarily derived from exporting natural resources, specifically oil and natural gas.     - Defintion of Rentier State: A state where the government derives a large percentage of its revenue from selling resources to foreign countries.     - Consequences: This reliance often leads to less government accountability to the domestic population since the state does not depend on traditional taxation for its budget.

• Concentration of Economic Assets     - Under Vladimir Putin, economic assets have shifted from the original wealthy elite to a new group controlled by the state.     - Oligarchs: A small group of powerful, wealthy individuals who gained control of state-owned assets during the rapid privatization of the $1990s$.     - The Siloviki: Translated as "men of force," these are political figures drawn from security or military services (such as the KGB and FSB). Under Putin, they have gained immense political and economic power, displacing many Yeltsin-era oligarchs.

Economic Reforms and Historical Transitions

• Shock Therapy     - Definition: A series of rapid economic reforms intended to convert post-communist countries into free-market systems.     - Implementation: Initiated under President Boris Yeltsin in the $1990s$.     - Components: The strategy involved the lifting of price controls and rapid privatization to move from a command economy to a market economy.     - Outcome: While intended for stabilization, it resulted in massive inflation, total economic collapse, and the creation of the original oligarch class.

• Gorbachev’s Reforms ($1980s$)     - Glasnost (Openness): A policy designed to encourage public debate and criticism of the government. The goal was to foster legitimacy for the Soviet regime and encourage economic innovation through constructive criticism.     - Perestroika (Restructuring): The introduction of limited market-like reforms aimed at revitalizing the stagnant Soviet economy.     - Result: Instead of strengthening the Communist Party, these policies unleashed long-suppressed political and ethnic tensions, accelerating the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Political Institutions and Power Structure

• The Presidency     - Russia is characterized as a super-presidential or semi-presidential system where the vast majority of political power lies with the President.     - Presidential Powers: The executive has the constitutional authority to appoint the Prime Minister, control key security organs, and issue decrees.     - Presidential Decrees: These decrees have the force of law, allowing the President to bypass the legislature (the Duma) and implement policy rapidly.

• The Russian Legislature (Federal Assembly)     - Russia uses a bicameral legislature consisting of the Duma and the Federation Council.     - The Duma (Lower House):         - Theoretically possesses powers such as rejecting the Prime Minister (up to $3$ times), initiating legislation, and holding votes of no confidence.         - Reality: In practice, it functions as a "rubber stamp" for the executive's policies because it is dominated by the United Russia party.     - The Federation Council (Upper House):         - Composed of representatives from the $85$ federal subjects.         - Powers: Approving treaties, declarations of war, and bills concerning regional interests.         - Status: Considered the weaker of the two chambers.

• Executive Dynamics: The Tandemocracy     - The Medvedev/Putin "Switch" ($2008$-$2012$): This event reinforced the perception that power in Russia is vested in an individual (Vladimir Putin) rather than a particular office.     - Significance: It demonstrated that Putin's informal power transcended formal constitutional rules, as he remained the effective leader while serving as Prime Minister during Medvedev’s presidency.

Electoral Systems

• Presidential Elections     - The President is elected via a two-round (majority) system.     - Mechanism: To win in the first round, a candidate must receive more than $50\%$ of the vote. If no candidate reaches this threshold, a run-off election is held between the top $2$ candidates.

• Duma Elections     - Reintroduced in $2016$, the Duma is elected through a mixed system.     - Mixed System Details: Half of the seats ($50\%$) are elected through Proportional Representation (party lists), and the other half ($50\%$) are elected through Single-Member Districts (plurality).     - Strategic Utility: This system is utilized to help the United Russia party maintain its majority.

State Structure, Law, and Judiciary

• Federalism vs. Centralization     - De Jure System: Technically, Russia is a federal system composed of $85$ federal subjects (including republics and regions).     - De Facto Reality: Under Putin, the system has become increasingly unitary and centralized. The Kremlin has limited the autonomy of regional governors and concentrated power in the national government.     - Asymmetric Federalism: This refers to the unequal distribution of power among sub-units. In Russia, ethnic republics (e.g., Chechnya) historically and constitutionally hold more autonomy than regular regions (oblasts).

• The Judiciary and Legal System     - Judicial Role: The judiciary is not independent and is subservient to the executive branch. It lacks the capacity to enforce the rule of law against state officials and is frequently used to carry out political vendettas, prosecute opponents, or seize private assets.     - Legal Tradition: Russia follows Code Law (civil law), derived from Continental Europe. This system relies on comprehensive, codified statutes rather than the precedent-based Common Law used in the UK and US.

Political Culture and Ideology

• Religion and State     - Orthodox Christianity: Historically a supporter of the Tsars, the Russian Orthodox Church has become a key partner for Putin in promoting Russian nationalism and traditional conservative values.

• Dominant Ideologies     - Nationalism: The state promotes pride in Soviet/Russian history, anti-Western rhetoric, and the protection of traditional values.     - Populism: An ideology that asserts the government should prioritize the interests of the "common people" over the "corrupt elite," expressing the general will (volont g n rale).     - The Slavophile vs. Westernizer Debate: A long-standing cleavage in Russian culture. Slavophiles argue for a unique, traditional path centered on Orthodoxy, while Westernizers advocate for modernization following Western European democratic models.

• Political Socialization     - This is the process through which individuals form political attitudes and beliefs. Key agents include the media, family, and formal education (e.g., a required government class in a public school).

Key Historical Figures and Concepts

• Joseph Stalin     - Dictatorial leader from the $1920s$ until $1953$.     - Key Actions: Implemented the Great Purge, centralized the economy through five-year plans, and established a totalitarian state.

• Nomenklatura     - The Soviet system of patronage where the Communist Party maintained a list of influential jobs in government and industry, filling them only with party loyalists.

• The Communist Party (CPRF)     - The Communist Party of the Russian Federation remains an active "systemic opposition" party in the Duma. While they hold seats, they generally cooperate with the ruling party and pose little true threat to the regime.

• Political Cleavages and Violence     - Russia has experienced significant violence in Chechnya, similar to the violence seen in Northern Ireland. These are examples of ethnic cleavages, where distinct groups seek independence or autonomy from the central government.

• United Russia     - Recognized as the "party of power," it has no fixed ideology. Its primary purpose is to consolidate support for the President, utilizing state resources and media control to maintain dominance.