AP US Government & Politics Content Review Notes

Constitutional Beginnings

• Purposes of Government:
  • Maintaining order.
  • Protecting citizens' rights.
  • Maintaining national security.
  • Establishing laws.
• Monarchy vs. Dictatorship:
  • Dictatorship: A single person or small group holds complete power.
  • Monarchy: Authority maintained through allegiance.
• Direct vs. Indirect Democracy:
  • Direct Democracy: Electorate directly involved in decision-making.
  • Indirect Democracy: Electorate elects officials to make laws.

Theories of Democracy

• Traditional Theory of Democracy:
  • Definition: Everyone has the right to participate in the government.
  • Example: Voting.
• Pluralist Theory of Democracy:
  • Definition: Interest groups participate in the government.
  • Examples: NRA, Red Cross, etc.
• Elite Theory of Democracy:
  • Definition: Governmental influence is held by a small group of elites.
  • Example: Electoral College.
• Hyperpluralism Theory of Democracy:
  • Definition: Conflicting interest groups gain power, making government unable to function.
  • Example: Current state of the US Government where many interest groups infiltrate Congress, leading to inefficiency.

The Policy-Making Cycle

• Sources of Political Socialization:
  • Family (most important).
  • Friends.
  • Social media.
  • News.
• Steps of the Policy-Making Cycle:
  • Step 1: Raise Awareness: Make people aware of the issue and get it on the public agenda.
  • Step 2: Create Policy Agenda: Create a list of important problems and subjects.
  • Step 3: Prioritize the Agenda: Focus on your agenda when making policies, considering important values and relevant issues.
  • Step 4: Enact New Public Policy: Implement the established policies.
  • Step 5: Evaluate the Policy: Determine the quality, effectiveness, and impact of the policy.

American Documents

• Declaration of Independence:
  • Incorporated John Locke's ideas of unalienable rights to life, liberty, and property, which are reflected as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness in the U.S. Constitution.
• The Articles of Confederation:
  • Powers Held by the Central Government:
    • Power to declare war and peace.
    • Coin money and borrow money.
    • Sign treaties with foreign countries.
  • Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation:
    • No power to tax the states.
    • No power to enforce laws.
    • No national army/navy.
    • No national court system.
    • Each state could issue its own currency.
  • Shays’ Rebellion: Highlighted weaknesses in the Articles of Confederation because the federal government could not aid against the uprising due to the lack of a national army.
• The U.S. Constitution:
  • Factions: A faction is a group within a larger group (in this case, the government).
  • Connecticut (Great) Compromise:
    • Scrapped the Articles and developed the Constitution.
    • Established a bicameral legislature with a house based on population and a senate representing states equally.
  • Three-Fifths Compromise:
    • Established that for every 5 enslaved people, they would be counted as 3 people when assessing representation for that state in the House.

Constitutional Principles

• Popular Sovereignty:
  • Definition: The people have to consent to be governed.
  • Example: Kansas-Nebraska Act.
• Limited Government:
  • Definition: The government has limited amounts of power.
  • Examples: Constitution, Rule of law, Rights of the minority.
• Separation of Powers:
  • Definition: The three branches of government have different duties.
  • Example:
    • Judicial branch: Establishes if laws are constitutional.
    • Executive branch: Interprets/enforces the laws.
    • Legislative branch: Creates the law.
• Checks and Balances:
  • Definition: Branches of government control each other's power.
  • Example: If one branch gets too powerful, its power can be checked by another branch.
• Judicial Review:
  • Definition: The government can assess if laws are constitutional.
  • Example: Marbury v. Madison.
• Federalism:
  • Definition: The federal government and the states have separate responsibilities.
  • Examples:
    • States provide driver's licenses, funding for local schools, etc.
    • The federal government does not do those things.

Structure of the Constitution

• Forbidden Concepts:
  • Writ of Habeas Corpus: A reason for detention is no longer required.
  • Bills of Attainder: Legislation that declares a party (person, group, etc.) guilty of a crime.
  • Ex Post Facto Laws: A law that retroactively changes legal consequences.
• Constitutional Provisions:
  • “Full Faith and Credit Clause”: States must recognize other states' legal documents.
  • “Supremacy Clause”: Federal laws supersede state laws.

The Bill of Rights

• 1st Amendment:
  • Freedoms: Speech, petition, protest, assembly, and religion.
  • Establishment clause: The United States cannot establish a national religion.
  • Free Exercise Clause: Everyone can practice any religion of their choosing.
• 2nd Amendment: Right to bear arms.
• 3rd Amendment: Prevents the quartering of soldiers in homes.
• 4th Amendment:
  • Regulates against search and seizure.
  • Warrants are required to legally search a person's home, papers, phone, etc.
• 5th Amendment:
  • Protection against the accusation of a crime.
  • Due Process Clause (of the Fifth Amendment): No one should be deprived of their unalienable rights (life, liberty, and property) without due process of the law.
• 6th Amendment: The right to a fair and speedy trial, the right to counsel (an attorney).
• 7th Amendment: The right to a jury in civil cases.
• 8th Amendment: No excessive bail or fines should be applied to a person, nor cruel and unusual punishment.
• 9th Amendment: Rights not included in the Bill of Rights may also not be infringed upon by the people of the government.
• 10th Amendment: Any powers not enumerated by the Constitution are reserved for the states.

Amendments After the Bill of Rights

• 12th Amendment: If no presidential candidate has a majority vote, or if there is a tie, the House of Representatives chooses who will be the president.
• 13th Amendment: Slavery was abolished, unless as punishment for a crime.
• 14th Amendment:
  • Defines citizenship rights (naturalization process), due process, and equal protection.
  • Equal Protection Clause: The government cannot deny rights to people.
  • Due Process Clause (of the 14th Amendment): No one should be deprived of their unalienable rights (life, liberty, and property) without due process of the law.
• 15th Amendment: The right to vote regardless of race or previous status of servitude.
• 17th Amendment: Election of senators by popular vote.
• 19th Amendment: The right to vote regardless of sex.
• 20th Amendment: Defines presidential succession (Vice President, Speaker of the House, etc.). If no President-elect is selected by inauguration day, the Vice President will take the place of the President until an official President is elected.
• 22nd Amendment: No person shall be elected president more than twice.
• 23rd Amendment: Allows the District of Columbia (Washington, DC) to vote in presidential elections.
• 24th Amendment: Eliminated poll taxes.
• 25th Amendment: In case the President is rendered unable to perform their duties, the Vice President will become President.
• 26th Amendment: Lowered the voting age from 21 to 18.

American Federalism

• Defining Federalism: Federalism is the separation of duties between federal and state governments.
• Necessity of Dividing Power: Keeps responsibilities for the states and reduces the fear of a monarchical government.
• Dual Federalism vs. Cooperative Federalism:
  • Dual Federalism: The power of the state and federal governments is divided, with responsibilities not overlapping. Designed to maintain maximum efficiency of governmental operations.
  • Cooperative Federalism: State and federal governments have a flexible relationship with each other regarding their responsibilities. Both sets of government work together on specific issues.
• Decentralization: Division of power among many entities as opposed to a central one.
  • Displayed in the US government through the division of power among state and federal governments (federalism).

Separation of National and State Governments

• Constitutional Powers:
  • Enumerated powers:
    • Powers established by the Constitution.
    • Examples:
      • Coining money.
      • Declaring war.
      • Maintaining an army and a navy.
  • Implied powers:
    • Powers of the government not explicitly listed in the Constitution, inferred by the Necessary and Proper Clause.
    • Examples:
      • Establishing a minimum wage.
      • Regulating commerce.
      • Making executive agreements.
  • Inherent powers:
    • Powers of a branch of government not listed in the Constitution, essential to maintain government functioning.
    • Examples:
      • Regulating immigration.
      • Acquiring new territory.
  • Reserved powers:
    • Powers that only a state government has.
    • Examples:
      • Establishing a local government.
      • Regulating marriage licenses.
  • Concurrent powers:
    • Powers that the state and federal governments share.
    • Examples:
      • Taxation.
      • Enacting laws.
      • Building infrastructure.
• “Necessary and Proper Clause” (Elastic Clause): Allows Congress to make laws that are necessary and proper for maintaining the proper functioning of the government, giving Congress leeway for explaining why a new law is passed and how it is constitutional.
• McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): Established that the government had rights which stretched beyond the enumerated powers listed in the Constitution (using the Necessary and Proper Clause) and that states could not tax federal institutions.

Cooperative Federalism

• Referred to as marble cake federalism because state and federal governments have different responsibilities, but some of them overlap, making it difficult to distinguish where federal power ends and state power begins.
• The US government has become more cooperative due to the New Deal and the Great Depression, which emphasized the need for federal intervention into realms that had once been reserved for the state only.

Fiscal Federalism

• Fiscal federalism is the separation of responsibility among state and federal governments over issues involving money, such as taxation and grants.
• Resembles the “carrot and a stick” metaphor where the government provides financial incentives (the carrot) to encourage states to adopt specific programs, while also threatening to withhold funds (the stick) to coerce states to comply.
• Types of Grants-in-Aid:
  • Categorical Grants: Have specific instructions (by the federal government) for how they can be used by state governments.
  • Formula Grants: Distribute funds to states to accomplish a common purpose.
  • Project Grants: Money awarded to fund a specific project, valid only for a fixed period.
  • Block Grants: Transfers money to state governments for broad purposes.
• Unfunded Mandates: Controversial because they impose duties and costs on the state government without the federal government compensating for those monetary losses.
• Devolution: The federal effort to return authority to the state temporarily, including decisions in administering federal programs and spending federal money.

Political Parties & Voting Behavior

• Functions of Political Parties:
  • Nominating candidates for political office.
  • Informing members to gain interest and participation.
  • Connecting candidates and officeholders to the electorate.
  • Conducting business of running the government.
  • Acting as a “watchdog” over the conduct of the party's business.
• Partisanship: Associating with a political party based on your alignment with their goals.

Third Parties

• The American political system limits the influence of third parties because, for a third party to win any electoral votes when running for president, they must win a majority of votes in the state. This two-party system prevents the influence of third parties because people who vote for third parties are often viewed as “wasting their vote”, lowering their political efficacy.
• Third parties can act as “spoilers” in elections by taking votes away from the major parties, possibly making a difference in the results of an election. Example: Sen. Rand Paul attempting to run for the Republican nomination, causing libertarians to come together to support him.

Organization of Parties

• Federalism: Power is divided between the national and state governments, and political parties operate at multiple levels—national, state, and local. Each level of the party has a degree of independence, and there is often variation in priorities, strategies, and even ideologies across different states.
• National committees: Are responsible for the overall management of the party at the national level.
• National chairpersons: Serves as the chief spokesperson and strategist for the party. This person is typically selected by the presidential nominee or elected by the committee and is responsible for day-to-day operations, organizing the national convention, managing party staff, and overseeing fundraising and media efforts.
• National conventions: Are major events where each party officially nominates its candidates for president and vice president and serve as a platform to rally party members, showcase key leaders, and adopt the party’s platform—a statement of its core policies and goals.
• State committees: Manage party affairs within their borders, including organizing state-level campaigns, fundraising, coordinating with local party chapters, and running primary elections.
• Purpose of primary elections: Select party nominees, shape party direction for future years, and increase political participation among the electorate.

Factors that Lead to Party Identification

• Trends of party identification:
  • Republican: Usually religious (Protestant), lower level of education, higher in age, less affluent on average.
  • Democrat: Not religious (or Catholic), higher level of education, lower in age, more affluent on average.

Party Realignment and Dealignment

• Party realignment: A shift in the political landscape where large groups of voters change their traditional party loyalty, leading to major changes in party platforms, voter coalitions, and control of government institutions. Example: 1932 during the New Deal Era, which attracted many new people to vote for the Democratic Party and FDR as their presidential candidate.
• Party dealignment: The process in which voters abandon their traditional party affiliations without realigning with another party, becoming independent or nonpartisan, and party loyalty weakens overall. Political scientists feel we are in a period of party dealignment because of low voter turnout and the electorate's expressed frustration with partisan politics.

Demographics

• Gender:
  • Men tend to vote for Republicans.
  • Women tend to vote for Democrats.
• Race:
  • White people tend to vote for Republicans.
  • Non-White people tend to vote for Democrats.
• Education:
  • College educated tend to vote for Democrats.
  • High School educated tend to vote for Republicans.
• Occupation:
  • Professional/Business tend to vote for Republicans.
  • White Collar tend to be inconclusive.
  • Manual Labor tend to vote for Republicans.
  • Union Members tend to vote for Democrats.
• Age:
  • Under 30 tend to vote for Democrats.
  • 30-49 tends to be inconclusive.
  • 50 and over tend to vote for Republicans.
• Religion:
  • Protestant tend to vote for Republicans.
  • Catholic tend to be inconclusive.
• Region:
  • East tend to vote for Democrats.
  • Midwest tend to be inconclusive.
  • South tend to vote for Republicans.
  • West tend to be inconclusive.

Intensity

• Political efficacy is the belief that a person's vote matters. If a person has a low voter efficacy, they will be less likely to vote. Younger voters tend to have lower voter efficiency.

Elections

• Campaigns for office cost so much money because candidates need to pay for widespread advertising, hire professional staff and consultants, and cover travel, events, and fundraising operations.
• Political interest groups participate in electioneering to help elect candidates who support their policy goals and legislative agendas, giving these groups access and leverage once those individuals are in office.
• Political Action Committees (PACs) began as a legal way for interest groups, unions, and corporations to raise and donate money to political campaigns while complying with federal regulations. PACs serve as a key tool for influencing elections and gaining access to policymakers.

Campaign Finance Reform

• Soft money refers to political donations that are not regulated by federal campaign finance laws and are given to political parties for general “party-building” activities and not directly to a specific candidate.
• The McCain-Feingold Act (AKA BCRA) banned national parties from raising or spending soft money and prohibited corporations and unions from funding issue ads that mention a candidate close to an election.
• The Federal Election Commission (FEC) is an independent regulatory agency that enforces federal campaign finance laws and transparency by requiring candidates and political groups to disclose financial information, investigating violations and imposing penalties for breaking campaign finance rules.

Incumbency

• An incumbent is a current officeholder who is seeking reelection. House members tend to have higher reelection rates than senators because they represent smaller districts and face less media scrutiny. House elections occur more frequently and with less competition, allowing incumbents to build stronger local support and name recognition.
• Incumbents benefit from the franking privilege (send mail to constituents at taxpayer expense), pork-barrel legislation (brings federal funds to their districts for local projects), junkets (official trips funded by taxpayers), and credit claiming (taking credit for legislation or services that benefit their constituents).

House and Senate Elections

• To run for the House of Representatives, a candidate must be at least 25 years old, have been a U.S. citizen for at least 7 years, and reside in the state they wish to represent.
• The number of House members per state is determined by population, which is measured every 10 years through the U.S. Census.
• A single-member district is a voting district in which one representative is elected to serve in a legislative body. In the U.S. House of Representatives, each district elects only one member, ensuring localized representation. This system tends to favor major parties and discourages third-party candidates.
• The 17th Amendment, ratified in 1913, changed the way U.S. Senators are elected by allowing direct election by the people, instead of being chosen by state legislatures, increasing democratic participation.
• To run for the U.S. Senate, a candidate must be at least 30 years old, have been a U.S. citizen for at least 9 years, and reside in the state they wish to represent.

The Electoral College

• The Electoral College is a system in which each state is assigned electors equal to its number of senators and representatives, totaling 538 nationwide. When voters cast ballots for president, they are actually selecting a slate of electors pledged to that candidate. In most states, the winner-take-all system gives all of a state’s electoral votes to the candidate who wins the popular vote there. This system can cause candidates to focus only on swing states and sometimes allows a candidate to win the presidency without winning the national popular vote.

Primaries, Caucuses, and the Conventions

• A caucus is a local, in-person meeting where party members gather to discuss and vote for their preferred candidate, involving open discussion and often multiple rounds of voting.
• In a closed primary, only registered party members can vote to choose their party’s nominee, while in an open primary, any registered voter can participate in either party’s primary regardless of party affiliation.
• States frontload their primaries to gain greater influence in choosing party nominees, building momentum, and attracting donations.
• At national conventions, political parties officially nominate their presidential and vice-presidential candidates, delegates cast votes based on primary and caucus results, and the party finalizes its platform and unifies behind its ticket.

The Legislative Branch

• Representation in the House is based on state population, as determined by the U.S. Census.
• Reapportionment is the process of redistributing the 435 seats in the House of Representatives among the states based on population changes after each census, ensuring fair and equal representation in Congress as populations shift.
• Gerrymandering is controversial because it allows political parties to draw district lines to favor themselves, often resulting in unfair or distorted representation.
• In Baker v. Carr, the Supreme Court ruled that federal courts could review redistricting cases, opening the door for judicial oversight and establishing the principle of “one person, one vote,” requiring that legislative districts have roughly equal populations.
• Leadership in the House of Representatives:
  • Speaker of the House: Most powerful member, presides over debates, sets the legislative agenda, and oversees House operations.
  • Majority Leader and Minority Leader: Lead their respective parties and coordinate legislative strategy.
  • Whips: Help gather votes and maintain party discipline.

Committees and the Iron Triangle

• Committees are essential in the House of Representatives because they allow members to divide the workload and focus on specific areas of policy, conducting detailed work like reviewing bills, holding hearings, and making amendments.
• Types of committees:
  • Standing Committee: Permanent committee that handles specific policy areas.
  • Joint Committee: Includes members of both chambers for specific tasks.
  • Conference Committee: Resolves differences between House and Senate bills.
  • Select Committee: Temporary committee for investigations or special issues.
• An iron triangle refers to the strong, stable relationship between congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups that work together to influence and create policy in a specific area.
• Pros:
  • Streamline decision-making and policy implementation by fostering cooperation between key stakeholders.
  • Provide specialized knowledge, leading to informed decisions.
  • Create a stable policy environment where specific groups' interests are consistently represented.
• Cons:
  • Lack of transparency and public input.
  • Prioritize the needs of well-organized interest groups over the general public.
  • Hinder reform or new ideas, maintaining the status quo.

Composition of the Senate

• The Senate has 100 members, two from each state, and senators serve 6-year terms, while the House has 435 members, based on population, and members serve 2-year terms. Senators must be at least 30 years old and have been U.S. citizens for 9 years. House members must be 25 years old and U.S. citizens for 7 years. The Senate has fewer restrictions on debate time, unlike the House, which has stricter limits.

Power, Committees, and Debates

• Leadership in the Senate:
  • The Vice President is the president of the Senate, but their role is mostly ceremonial.
  • The Majority Leader holds the real power, controlling the legislative agenda and guiding bills.
  • The Minority Leader leads the opposition party, and the Whips help maintain party discipline and vote counting.
• Distinguishing powers of the Senate:
  • Ratify treaties with a two-thirds majority.
  • Confirm presidential appointments.
  • Conduct impeachment trials.
• A filibuster is a strategy in the Senate where a senator speaks endlessly to delay or prevent a vote on a bill, which can be ended by invoking cloture, requiring 60 votes to limit debate and proceed to a vote.

Route of a Bill through Congress

*   Bill: A proposed law presented for legislative consideration and approval.
*   Public bill: A bill affecting the general population or entire country.
*   Private bill: A bill affecting a specific individual or organization.
*   Resolutions: Formal expressions of opinion or decision by a legislative body.
*   Joint resolutions: Formal expressions of legislative intent, requiring approval from both chambers.
*   Concurrent resolutions: Agreements or decisions made by both chambers, not requiring a law.
*   Cloture: A procedure to end debate and proceed to a vote.

Veto Power and Judicial Review

• The president has four options after Congress has passed a bill:
  • Sign the bill into law.
  • Veto the bill.
  • Do nothing for 10 days, allowing the bill to become law without a signature (unless Congress adjourns, in which case it’s a pocket veto).
  • Pocket veto by not signing the bill within 10 days if Congress adjourns, preventing the bill from becoming law.
• The Supreme Court can review laws passed by Congress to determine their constitutionality through judicial review, ensuring that laws align with the U.S. Constitution and protects individual rights.

The Executive Branch

• Constitutional qualifications to become president:
  • Candidate must be at least 35 years old.
  • Natural-born citizen of the U.S., and have lived in the country for at least 14 years.

Rules and Contingencies

• The 25th Amendment clarifies the presidential succession and provides procedures for filling the vice presidency in case of vacancy, ensuring continuity of leadership during crises or incapacity.
• Historical example of the Presidential Succession Act being used: In 1963, after President John F. Kennedy’s assassination, Lyndon B. Johnson became president under the Presidential Succession Act.
• A president can be removed through impeachment, a process initiated by the House of Representatives, followed by a trial in the Senate. Richard Nixon resigned in 1974 before impeachment could be completed, but Bill Clinton was impeached in 1998 (though acquitted by the Senate).
• The 22nd Amendment limits a president to two terms in office or a total of 10 years if they served as a vice president and assumed the presidency mid-term, preventing any individual from holding too much power for an extended period.

Express Roles

• Commander in Chief: The president is the supreme leader of the U.S. armed forces, responsible for military decisions and national defense. Example: President George H.W. Bush ordered military action to liberate Kuwait from Iraqi occupation during the Gulf War.
• Chief Executive: The president is responsible for enforcing and implementing federal laws, managing the executive branch, and issuing executive orders. President Franklin D. Roosevelt signed the New Deal programs into action during the Great Depression.
• Chief Diplomat: The president manages U.S. foreign relations, negotiates treaties, and appoints ambassadors. President Richard Nixon initiated the détente policy, leading to the historic 1972 visit to China.
• Chief Legislator: The president influences the legislative process, proposing bills, issuing vetoes, and working with Congress to pass laws. President Lyndon B. Johnson worked closely with Congress to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and Voting Rights Act of 1965.
• The vice president's primary constitutional role is to serve as the president of the Senate, where they can cast a tie-breaking vote, and assumes the presidency if the president dies, resigns, or becomes incapacitated.

Traditional Roles and Special Powers

• A president can help other candidates by supporting them during elections, known as the