Social (Test 2)
Emotional Terminology and Definitions
Emotion
Definition: A conscious state that is a reaction to an external event or stimulus.
Characteristics:
Requires an external trigger (i.e., can't occur while alone without stimulus).
Generally shorter in duration compared to moods.
More specific in nature.
Mood
Definition: A state that is not connected to any specific external stimulus or event.
Characteristics:
Tends to last longer than emotions.
More general in nature.
Affect
Relationship: Although separate from emotions and moods, affects can influence both.
Being in a specific mood can predispose one to experience certain emotions.
Emotional Experience
Variation in Experience: Individuals differ in how intensely they experience emotions, known as emotional reactivity.
Example: Some individuals may consistently report feeling more positive emotions suggesting a predisposition to positive affect.
Elements of Emotion
Three Key Elements:
Physiological Arousal: Changes occurring internally in the body due to emotional stimuli (heart rate, breathing, etc.).
Cognitive Appraisal: The mental evaluation of the physiological arousal and external stimulus informing the emotional experience.
Behavioral Response: Outcomes reflecting emotional state (crying, laughing, etc.).
Stimulus:
A necessary event or object triggering an emotional reaction.
Example: Thinking about a past event can evoke emotion despite the absence of direct external stimuli.
Theories of Emotion
James-Lange Theory:
Explanation: External stimuli lead to physiological arousal which is then cognitively appraised to experience an emotion.
Critique: The assumption that every emotion corresponds to a distinct physiological response is flawed since many emotions may produce similar physiological outcomes.
Facial Feedback Hypothesis:
Example of physiological states altering emotional experience (e.g., holding a pencil in the mouth to induce happiness).
Highlights how body posture and expression can influence emotional state.
Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory:
Explanation: Physiological arousal leads to searching for the appropriate stimulus contributing to that arousal, then leads to cognitive appraisal and emotional experience.
Example: If someone feels anxious without knowing why, they will search for a source of anxiety, which will shape their emotional understanding.
Strength and Duration of Emotions
Negative Emotions:
Typically experienced more intensely, last longer, and have more significant implications than positive emotions (e.g., stress vs. joy).
Contextual Interpretation:
Recognizing the role of context in interpreting emotional states (e.g., one might perceive stress or celebration based on surrounding information and environments).
Consequences of Physiological Arousal
Expectation Transfer:
High levels of physiological arousal may be attributed inaccurately to a different stimulus entirely due to the physiological response seen.
Research Example: Participants crossing a scary bridge were more likely to contact an attractive research assistant afterward due to heightened arousal.
Optimal Arousal and Performance
Yerkes-Dodson Law:
States there is an optimal arousal level for peak performance.
Too little or too much arousal can hinder performance, especially in moderately difficult tasks.
Applied to competitive sports and performance anxiety.
Happiness as an Emotion
Factors Influencing Happiness:
Cultural and biological roots contribute to perceptions of success and therefore happiness.
Caveat: Contrary to common belief, people with children report lower happiness on average due to stress.
Ways to Increase Happiness:
Enhance Social Connections: Interaction correlates with increased happiness.
Financial Stability: Money contributes to happiness only up to a threshold (~$100,000 - $110,000) where basic needs are met.
Positive Thinking: Reflecting on positive past experiences fosters a higher happiness level.
Research Findings:
Happy individuals may experience better health and longevity. Infants can differentiate happy expressions by 3 months.
Anger and its Unique Characteristics
Definition: An emotional response to a perceived threat or provocation characterized as an approach emotion (desire to confront).
Adaptive Function: Signaling to others the readiness to engage or resist threats.
Anger Recognition: Recognition of anger happens more quickly than other emotions, suggesting its evolutionary significance.
Coping with Anger:
Concealment can prolong feelings of anger. Better coping involves minimizing stimulus exposure and re-evaluating the perceived threat.
Disgust as an Emotion
Definition: A strong avoidance response to stimuli often associated with potential harm (e.g., disease, contamination).
Unique Evolutionary Aspects: Tied to survival instincts, particularly related to food and caregiving across species.
Cultural Influences on Emotions
Universal Emotions: Emotions like happiness, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, and surprise are recognized universally across cultures (Eckman).
Display Norms: Cultures regulate the appropriateness of emotional expression in various situations.
Gender Differences in Emotion: Research indicates women report experiencing emotions related to emotional threats more intensely, while men report stronger feelings tied to physical threats.
Self-Conscious Emotions
Definition: Emotions that emerge from self-reflection, usually involving social comparison (e.g., guilt, shame).
Social Comparison Emotions:
Envy: Desire for what someone else has, can be benign or malicious.
Jealousy: Concern over perceived threats to valued relationships, often incorporates multiple individuals in the scenario.
Guilt vs. Shame
Guilt: Feeling regret for specific actions, motivating reparative actions.
Shame: Generalized negative perception of self due to past actions.