flashcards Psychology

• ·         sleep as a psychological construct that is broadly categorised as a naturally occurring altered state of consciousness and is further categorised into REM and NREM sleep, and the measurement of physiological responses associated with sleep, through electroencephalography (EEG), electromyography (EMG), electro-oculography (EOG), sleep diaries and video monitoring

CONSCIOUSNESS: the awareness of our own internal mental processes, including thoughts, feelings, sensations and perceptions, and your awareness of the external world around you

•      It is considered a psychological construct because it cannot be objectively observed or measured directly through the collection of data, but is widely understood to exist

There are two types of consciousness that we will refer to:

-   Normal Waking Consciousness

-   Altered States of Consciousness

NORMAL WAKING CONSCIOUSNESS (NWC):     refers to being AWARE of our thoughts, memories, feelings and sensations; our perceptions and thoughts are organised, clear and we have a strong sense of self

ALTERED STATE CONSCIOUSNESS (AWC) describes any state that differs from normal waking consciousness in terms of;

-  LEVEL OF AWARENESS

-  EXPERIENCES

-  TYPE AND INTENSITY OF SENSATIONS, PERCEPTIONS, THOUGHTS, FEELINGS, MEMORIES

In ASC, cognitions about the self & the world around us change so much that the result may be a decrease in inhibitions and control.

An ASC affects the senses making them receptive to external stimuli.

•      Naturally occurring altered states of consciousness occur without any external influence e.g. Daydreaming or dreams

•      Induced altered states of consciousness have been brought about on purpose e.g. meditation, hypnosis or drugs

ASC may be identified by:

-  PERCEPTUAL AND COGNITIVE DISTORTIONS

-  DISTURBED SENSE OF TIME

-  CHANGES IN EMOTIONAL AWARENESS AND SELF CONTROL

CONSCIOUSNESS CONTINUUM

A visual representation of the different states of consciousness that progress from lower levels of awareness to higher levels of awareness

Consciousness is described as a CONTINUUM as there are no distinct boundaries between states

SLEEP: is a regular and naturally occurring altered state of consciousness that involves a loss of awareness and disengagement with internal and external stimuli.

Sleep can also be considered a psychological construct. This is because the subjective experience of sleep cannot be overtly measured, yet we still have a general understanding of what it is and that it exists.

Characteristics of sleep include:

·         a reduced ability to control behaviour

·         a reduction in the control we have over thoughts, for example, we lack control over what we dream about

·         less accurate understanding of the passage of time

·         perceptual and cognitive distortions.

SLEEP CYCLE: is an approximately 90-minute-period that repeats during a sleep episode in which an individual progresses through stages of REM and NREM sleep

SLEEP EPISODE: is the full duration of time spent asleep, which usually consists of 4-5 sleep cycles.

REM (rapid eye movement) sleeps a type of sleep characterised by rapid eye movement, high levels of brain activity, and low levels of physical activity 

NREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep a type of sleep characterised
by a lack of rapid eye movement and is subdivided into three different stages

WAYS TO MEASURE SLEEP:

·         the electroencephalograph (EEG)

·         the electromyograph (EMG)

·         the electro-oculargraph (EOG)

·         sleep diaries

·         video monitoring

When answering these questions use DARE

-   Detect

-   Amplify

-   Record

-   Electrical activity

Electroencephalograph (EEG) a device that detects, amplifies, and records the electrical activity of the brain

EEGs can indicate whether an individual might be in an altered state of consciousness and therefore whether they may be asleep. Often, an EEG will show a higher frequency and lower amplitude when in normal waking consciousness, and a lower frequency and higher amplitude during an altered state of consciousness.

Therefore, an EEG is likely to show:

·         higher frequency and lower amplitude in REM sleep.

·         high frequency and low amplitude in NREM sleep stage 1 (transitioning from wakefulness to sleep), but lower frequency and higher amplitude than normal-waking consciousness.

·         medium frequency and medium amplitude in NREM sleep stage 2 (light sleep).

·         lower frequency and higher amplitude in NREM sleep stage 3 (deep sleep).

Electromyograph (EMG) a device that detects, amplifies, and records the electrical activity of the body’s muscles

Electro-oculography (EOG) a device that detects, amplifies, and records the electrical activity of the muscles responsible for eye movement

Sleep diaries a record containing self-reported descriptions from an individual about their sleeping periods, including an estimated time spent sleeping and judgements they might have about the quality and nature of their sleep

Some of the information that can be recorded by an individual in a sleep diary include:

·         the duration of sleep

·         the quality of sleep

·         thoughts and feelings before going to sleep

·         thoughts and feelings after waking up

·         behaviours before going to sleep

·         behaviours after waking up

·         the number of times sleep was disrupted.

Sleep diaries are beneficial as they provide qualitative information and therefore are often extensive in detail and description. However, as the patient is responsible for collecting and reporting the information within a sleep diary, it is subjective and therefore may not be accurate. Further, as sleep diaries are also interpreted by a doctor or professional, this leaves more room for error and inaccuracy.

Video monitoring the use of camera and audio technologies to record an individual as they sleep

Video monitoring is particularly useful for individuals with sleep disorders, as their behaviours during sleep can be observed. Video monitoring can also be used in conjunction with physiological measures to give validity to a phenomenon. For example, a spike in an EMG recording could correspond to bodily movement in the bed, which would be validated with video monitoring.

The interpretation of video monitoring is subjective. For example, it may be unclear whether an individual seen to be getting out of bed during the night is awake or sleepwalking. 

• ·         regulation of sleep-wake patterns by internal biological mechanisms, with reference to circadian rhythm, ultradian rhythms of REM and NREM Stages 1–3, the suprachiasmatic nucleus and melatonin

BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS: repeated biological processes that are regulated by
internal mechanisms

CIRCADIUM RHYTHM: biological and behavioural changes that occur as part of a cycle that lasts around 24 hours

SLEEP-WAKE CYCLE: a 24-hour-cycle that is made up of time spent sleeping and time spent awake and alert

ULTRADIUM RHYTHMS: biological and behavioural changes that occur in a cycle that lasts less than 24 hours

During sleep, an individual experiences different types and stages of sleep. These two different types of sleep are known as REM and NREM sleep.

·         REM (rapid eye movement) sleep is a type of sleep characterised by rapid eye movement, high levels of brain activity, and low levels of physical activity.

·         NREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep is a type of sleep characterised by a lack of rapid eye movement and is subdivided into three different stages.

The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) an area of the hypothalamus that is responsible for regulating an individual’s sleep-wake patterns

The SCN receives information from both external and internal cues to help modulate the circadian rhythm.

External cues involve information from the environment, such as the presence or absence of light.

Internal cues involve information that originates within the body (such as the expression and suppression of genes, known as clock genes).

Pineal gland a gland in the brain responsible for the production and release of melatonin

Melatonin a hormone released by the pineal gland typically at night-time to induce sleep as part of the sleep- wake cycle

The following steps summarise the process of the SCN regulating the sleep-wake cycle at night-time:

1.    The SCN receives external cues. The SCN also receives internal cues.

2.    After receiving both internal and external cues, the SCN sends neural messages (signals) to the pineal gland to produce and release melatonin.

3.    The pineal gland releases melatonin into the bloodstream, which promotes feelings of calm and relaxation, therefore promoting sleep.

·         differences in, and explanations for, the demands for sleep across the life span, with reference to total amount of sleep and changes in a typical pattern of sleep (proportion of REM and NREM)

Sleep duration and the proportion of REM sleep generally decreases as age increases. However, these trends occur at different rates as the proportion of REM sleep stops significantly decreasing from childhood onwards.

• Importance of sleep to mental wellbeing

• ·         the effects of partial sleep deprivation (inadequate sleep either in quantity or quality) on a person’s affective, behavioural and cognitive functioning, and the affective and cognitive effects of one night of full sleep deprivation as a comparison to blood alcohol concentration readings of 0.05 and 0.10

SLEEP DEPRIVATION: inadequate quantity and/ or quality of sleep

FULL SLEEP DEPRIVATION: when an individual has no sleep within a 24-hour- period

PARTIAL SLEEP DEPRIVATION: when an individual sleeps for some duration within a 24-hour-period, but the sleep duration is too short, or the quality of sleep is poor

Both full and partial sleep deprivation have negative effects on an individual’s ability to function. Specifically, they have adverse effects on people’s emotions, behaviours, and ability to think clearly. These can be described as:

·         affective effects

·         behavioural effects

·         cognitive effects

Affective effects (relating to sleep deprivation) the changes in emotions and emotional responses that arise from sleep deprivation

Some affective effects of sleep deprivation include:

·         poor emotional regulation: resulting in amplified emotional responses that are out of proportion (exaggerated) in comparison to normal emotional responses

·         irritability and moodiness

·         increase in negative emotions

·         reduced ability to cope with stress

·         difficulty judging other people’s emotions

·         reduced empathy towards others

·         impaired ability to appropriately respond to situations; thus, people may overreact (emotionally) to minor things and experience emotional outbursts

·         increase in aggression and impatience

·         increase in mood swings.

Behavioural effects refer to the changes in actions and the ability to control them that arise from sleep deprivation. Behavioural effects are the observable changes in behaviour. Some behavioural effects of sleep deprivation include:

·         sleep inertia (sense of disorientation after waking)

·         excessive sleepiness during the day

·         increased likelihood of engaging in risk-taking behaviours

·         fatigue/lack of energy

·         slowed reaction time

·         reduced efficiency: thus, it takes more time to complete tasks

·         reduced motor control and heightened clumsiness, contributing to higher rates of accidents and injuries

·         involuntary lapses into microsleeps (where the individual briefly falls asleep for a few seconds without awareness of doing so)

·         diminished social functioning and impaired control of behaviour.

Cognitive effects refer to the changes in mental processes that arise from sleep deprivation. Some cognitive effects of sleep deprivation include:

·         reduced concentration

·         impairment of short-term memory; thus, diminishing the ability to actively process and mentally manipulate information

·         diminished ability to perform cognitive tasks, particularly as the duration of the task increases

·         lapses in attention

·         impaired decision-making processes and problem-solving abilities

·         diminished creativity and ability to utilise abstract thought

·         reduced retention of information; thus, impaired learning and memory processes

·         irrational and/or illogical thinking

·         more time spent analysing situations and a greater likelihood of overlooking important details

·         impaired visual and spatial ability.

Blood alcohol concentration (BAC) a measure of how much alcohol is in a person’s bloodstream

·         A BAC of 0.05 is roughly equivalent to 17 hours of sleep deprivation (partial sleep deprivation).

·         A BAC of 0.10 is roughly equivalent to 24 hours of sleep deprivation (full sleep deprivation).

AFFECTIVE

Sleep deprivation negatively affects someone’s emotional functioning, making them more irritable or sensitive. Alcohol on the other hand can have a range of effects on someone’s emotions, including making them feel:

·         happy and excited

·         angry

·         sad.

COGNITIVE

A BAC of 0.10 impairs cognition in a way that is comparable to having 24 hours of sleep deprivation (full sleep deprivation), while a BAC of 0.05 impairs cognition in a way that is comparable to experiencing 17 hours of partial sleep deprivation. Such cognitive impairments can include:

·         slower mental processes, such as reduced speed in processing and understanding information

·         decreased ability to reason and problem solve

·         greater difficulty making sense of the world

·         reduced ability to make decisions quickly and effectively

·         cognitive distortions.

• ·         changes to a person’s sleep-wake cycle that cause circadian rhythm sleep disorders (Delayed Sleep Phase Syndrome [DSPS], Advanced Sleep Phase Disorder [ASPD] and shift work) and the treatments of circadian rhythm sleep disorders through bright light therapy

SLEEP DISORDERS: disturbances to typical sleeping and waking patterns

CIRCADIUM RHYTHM SLEEP DISORDERS: sleep disorders that interfere with the typical regulation of the circadian rhythm of sleep, leading to a change in the sleep-wake cycle

DELAYED SLEEP PAHSE SYNDROME (DSPS) a type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder in which sleep and waking occur later than usual

DSPS is caused by a misalignment between external and internal cues that regulate the circadian rhythm. Specifically, external cues are received at an appropriate time, but internal cues are not.

For example, an individual with DSPS still receives the external cues of light
in the morning and dark in the night, but they do not receive internal cues properly in the morning and at night. This causes melatonin secretion to occur later and therefore the individual’s sleep and wake times occur later than appropriate.

ADVANCED SLEEP PHASE DISORDER (ASPD): a type of circadian rhythm sleep disorder in which sleep and waking occur earlier than usual

ASPD is caused by a misalignment between external and internal cues that regulate the circadian rhythm. Specifically, external cues are being received at an appropriate time, while internal cues are not.

For example, an individual with ASPD still receives the external cues of light in the morning and dark in the night, but their internal cues are not being received properly in the morning and night. This causes the individual to sleep and wake earlier than appropriate, due to melatonin secretion occurring earlier. In this way, the difference between DSPS and ASPD is that melatonin secretion occurs later for individuals with DSPS and earlier for individuals with ASPD.

SHIFT WORK: an occupation that involves working at unusual hours, such as working overnight

Effects of shift work on sleep include:

·         insomnia (a sleep disorder characterised by difficulty falling asleep and staying asleep). Shift work overnight can disrupt the body’s circadian rhythm and can trigger insomnia.

·         fragmented sleep. Shift work often involves working unusual hours and therefore having to sleep at unusual hours. This can involve repeatedly waking up during a sleep episode and having multiple short sleep episodes during the day (naps), as opposed to one regular sleep episode (approximately 8 hours).

·         circadian rhythm phase disorder. External cues from the environment are out of sync with shift work requirements, as shift workers can be in highly lit environments during night-time.

·         quality and quantity of sleep can be adversely affected. Due to internal cues, such as clock gene expression and suppression, the body is programmed to sleep during the night and be wakeful during the day.

BRIGHT LIGHT THERAPY: a method used to adjust a person’s circadian rhythm through exposure to a high-intensity light source

FACTORS ESSENTIAL TO BRIGHT LIGHT THERAPY:

Appropriate timing of exposure: Bright light therapy must occur at the right time to make a person feel awake at the right time. For example, people who feel sleepy earlier than appropriate, such as by 5pm, can conduct an exposure session in the late afternoon or early evening to help them stay awake and fall asleep later at a more appropriate time.

The right amount of light: The intensity of the light and the length of exposure sessions must be appropriate to the person’s disorder and desired changes to their circadian rhythm. The intensity and length should also be built up gradually to avoid negative side effects like headaches.

Safe exposure: A person should not look directly at the light, and their face should be an adequate distance away from the light source.

• ·         improving sleep hygiene and adaptation to zeitgebers to improve sleep-wake patterns and mental wellbeing, with reference to daylight and blue light, temperature, and eating and drinking patterns

SLEEP HYGEINE: is a term used to describe the practices and habits that promote an individual’s sleep patterns. Sleep hygiene is positive and beneficial, as it improves the quality and quantity of sleep. In this way, a lack of sleep hygiene involves having sleep practices that do not promote the quality and quantity of sleep.

Sleep hygiene involves:

• time; sleeping and waking at a time that enables an adequate amount of sleep and sleeping and waking at a consistent time each day.

• sound; sleeping in a quiet space.

• light; sleeping in a dark space and reducing bright light exposure close to sleeping time.

• comfort; sleeping in a comfortable space.

• technology/devices; avoiding bright screen use close to sleeping time.

• association with bed; avoiding doing activities other than sleeping in bed (like studying or watching TV).

• food and drink consumption; avoiding large meals, caffeine, and alcohol before sleeping time.

• exercise; engaging in exercise early in the day and avoiding exercise close to sleeping time.

ZEITGEBERS: external cues from the environment that influence the circadian rhythm

LIGHT

Daylight: Daylight, which is predominantly natural blue light, regulates the sleep-wake cycle by signalling to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) to cease melatonin production and promote wakefulness. Thus, daylight acts as a zeitgeber.

Blue light: Similarly to daylight (natural blue light), artificial blue light can also act as a zeitgeber. Artificial blue light can also act as an external cue in the same way that daylight does, thus promoting wakefulness. In this way, exposure to natural or artificial blue light at nighttime can reduce sleepiness.

TEMPERATURE: the degree of external heat in the environment that can influence the quality and quantity of sleep.

-       Research suggests there is a link between having a cool room temperature and experiencing improved quantity and quality of sleep. It is thought that this
is because body temperature drops during sleep, thus, a cooler room temperature helps body temperature cool.

EATING AND DRINKING PATTERNS: (in relation to zeitgebers) what, when, and how much food and drink is consumed by an individual 

Caffeine: Caffeine is a stimulant and thus increases the activity of the nervous system, promoting wakefulness. Additionally, caffeine also blocks sleep-promoting neurotransmitters. Caffeine can be found in coffee, energy drinks, some soft drinks, and chocolate.

Alcohol: Alcohol is a depressant which can increase feelings of tiredness. Therefore, alcohol can make it easier to fall asleep; however, alcohol significantly impairs the quality of sleep. Alcohol often negatively impacts sleep in the second half of the sleep episode, in which sleep disruptions are more common (Ebrahim et al., 2013).

High sugar/high fat foods: Studies suggest that consuming a diet high in fatty foods and sugary foods can negatively impact sleep quality and quantity (Nisar et al., 2019).

Spicy foods:  Spicy foods can increase body temperature. As you have learnt, cooler body temperatures can promote sleep. Therefore, the increased body temperature from consuming spicy foods can impair sleep. Additionally, spicy foods can stimulate and increase metabolic processes, which can make it more difficult to fall asleep (Edwards et al., 2002).