Chapter 21 - World War I & Its Aftermath

The Concept of Total War: World War I, known as “The Great War,” was a total war where entire nations mobilized their economies, populations, and industries. It led to the destruction of the Qing (to an extent), Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, German, and Russian Empires.
Technological and Human Cost: The conflict involved the first major use of industrial-scale weaponry, resulting in over $9$ million military and $10$ million civilian deaths. This shaped the U.S. into a burgeoning global power while fueling domestic progressive movements and civil rights activism.
Long-Term Global Shifts: The war's end did not bring lasting peace; instead, it created economic instability, redrew global borders without regard for ethnic lines, and birthed ideologies like Fascism and Bolshevism.

Structural Causes:
- Militarism: European nations engaged in an arms race, particularly the naval rivalry between Britain and Germany.
- Alliances: A web of mutual defense treaties meant a local conflict could trigger a global war.
- Imperialism: Competition for African and Asian colonies created constant friction between powers like France, Britain, and Germany.
- Nationalism: Intense patriotism and the desire for self-determination in the Balkans (the “powder keg” of Europe) destabilized multinational empires.
Germany's Rise and the Schlieffen Plan: Kaiser Wilhelm II pursued Weltpolitik (global policy) to secure Germany’s “place in the sun.” Military planners developed the Schlieffen Plan, a strategy to avoid a two-front war by swiftly defeating France through neutral Belgium before turning to face Russia.
The Evolution of Alliances:
- Triple Entente: Formed by Britain, France, and Russia to counterbalance the growing German threat.
- Triple Alliance: Comprising Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy (though Italy later switched sides).

The Spark: On June $28$ , $1914$ , Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo. This triggered the “July Crisis,” where alliance obligations forced nations into mobilization.
The Western Front and Trench Warfare: Following the failure of the Schlieffen Plan at the Battle of the Marne, the conflict devolved into a defensive stalemate.
- Trench Conditions: Soldiers faced mud, lice, “shell shock” (PTSD), and “no man’s land.”
- Modern Technology: The introduction of poison gas, tanks, airplanes, and heavy artillery increased lethality without breaking the stalemate.

The Policy of Neutrality: President Woodrow Wilson initially advocated for neutrality in “thought and deed.” However, the U.S. economy became deeply entwined with the Allies through massive loans and trade in munitions.
Submarine Warfare and Provocation:
- RMS Lusitania: The sinking in $1915$ killed $128$ Americans, shifting public opinion against Germany.
- Unrestricted Submarine Warfare: In early $1917$ , Germany resumed sinking all merchant ships in the Atlantic, hoping to starve Britain into submission before the U.S. could mobilize.
The Zimmermann Telegram: A secret German diplomatic communication proposed an alliance with Mexico, promising them the return of Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona if they attacked the U.S. This was the final straw for American public sentiment.
Mobilization: The U.S. passed the Selective Service Act of $1917$ . Of the $2.5$ million men examined, roughly $34\%$ were rejected, highlighting national health and literacy issues.

The Committee on Public Information (CPI): Led by George Creel, this agency used propaganda to “sell” the war, often inciting anti-German sentiment and hyper-patriotism.
The Great Migration: Hundreds of thousands of Black Americans moved from the rural South to Northern industrial cities to fill labor shortages caused by the draft, seeking better economic opportunities and an escape from Jim Crow.
Women and the War: Women took on industrial roles and served as nurses and clerks. Their contribution was a critical argument for the eventual passage of the $19$ th Amendment (suffrage).

The “Spanish Flu”: This H $1$ N $1$ virus likely originated in military camps in Kansas. It spread rapidly via troop ships, killing an estimated $50$ to $100$ million people worldwide—significantly more than the war itself. It notably lowered the average life expectancy in the U.S. by $12$ years in $1918$ .

The Fourteen Points: Wilson’s blueprint for a moral world order included free trade, open diplomacy, arms reduction, and “national self-determination.”
The Treaty of Versailles ( $1919$ ):
- Article 231 (The War Guilt Clause): Forced Germany to accept sole responsibility for the war.
- Reparations: Germany was ordered to pay $33$ billion in damages, crippling its economy.
- The League of Nations: Created to resolve international disputes through diplomacy rather than war.
The Domestic Fight: The U.S. Senate, led by Henry Cabot Lodge (the “Reservationists”), refused to ratify the treaty, fearing that Article $X$ would strip Congress of its power to declare war. The U.S. never joined the League.

The First Red Scare: The $1917$ Bolshevik Revolution in Russia sparked fears of a communist uprising in the U.S., leading to the Palmer Raids and the suppression of radical labor unions.
The Red Summer of $1919$ : Returning Black veterans, expecting “democracy” at home after fighting for it abroad, were met with violent race riots in over $30$ cities. This period marked a turning point in Black militancy and the civil rights struggle.

The Failed Peace: The harsh terms of Versailles and the U.S. retreat into isolationism laid the groundwork for the rise of Adolf Hitler and the Great Depression. The war fundamentally changed the relationship between the citizen and the state, increasing government power and surveillance through the Espionage ( $1917$ ) and Sedition ( $1918$ ) Acts.