AP Psych
Unit 2: Cognition
2.1a-Perception: influences on perception
Selective attention - have evolved to select what we need to focus on
Told to focus on one thing and something else changes
Cards
Passing the ball
Selective attention and accidents
Expectations contacts motivation and emotion
Perpetual set - to explain the why we do something
context
Motivation
emotion
75% assasashon areas that have to do will learned thing to handle ethic dilemmas
2.1b- Perception: perceptual organization and interpretation
Perpetual organization
form perception
Figure- ground = Organize
Visual field
Grouping = Organize
Gestalt - type of psychologise
Organize stimuli into coherent groups
3 ways that we group
Proximity - things that are closer together
Similarity - white dots vs black dots
closure - likes to close things
depth perception- see how far things are
binocular cues- both eyes
Convergence
Retinal disparity
Mononocular cues - either eye
motion perception
Perceived in the mind - similarly to depth
How something is moving
How fast something is moving
perceptual consistency
color and brightness consistencies - Color constancy
shape and size consistencies - shape consistency
2.2a-Thinking problem solving judgments and decision making: Concepts and creativity
Concepts
Prototype
thinking creatively
This is something that only humans can do
Different thinking
Convergent - pick the best solution
Divergent - real world problem solving
2.2b- Thinking problem solving judgments and decision making:Solving problems and making decisions
problem solving strategies and obstacles
forming good and bad decisions and judgments
too quick but risky shortcuts
Overconfidence
Don't dedicate enough time, resources or effort
belief perseverance
the effects of framing
2.3- Introduction to Memory
studying memory - the core of this unit
Needed for us to survive
Recall is more difficult than recognition
Releraining is studying
All learning is useless if you can not retrieve it
Types of memory
Sensory - immediate, do not encode
You smell something
Short- term - briefly activated memory, do not encode
Someone tells you a phone number
Info is held here for a time
If you don't want it, it leaves
If you do, then it goes to long-term memory
Long-term - everything you know
Archive of your childhood memories
Need to be able to retrieve from here
Working - newer understanding of short-term memory
If you want to use info, it needs to be in the working or short-term
Atkinson and shiffrin - forced on how info passes through various types of storage
Sensory → short-term → long-term
2.4- Encoding memories
Memory
Explicit - stuff we can recite - declarative
Multiplication facts
Implicit - stuff we know but cant recite - nondeclarative
How to ride a bike
Sensory memory - will be fleeting unless we encode it
Iconic - visual stimuli
Ectopic - auditory stimuli
George Miller - student short term memory
Can hold 7 pieces of info for about 30 seconds
Younger adults have the best short term memory
Multitasking is bad for memory
Effortful processing
increasing short-term memory capacity
strategies
Chunking - grouping
Mnemonics - songs
Hierarchies
Mental picture
Distributing practice
levels of processing
making material personality meaningful
2.5- Storing memories
retaining information in the brain - long term memory
No limit to how much you can remember
the frontal lobe and hippocampus
explicit memory systems
Hippocampus = gets better with age
Memory consolidation = improved by better sleep
Prefrontal cortex
Working memory
the cerebellum and basal ganglia - older regions of the brain
implicate memory system
Ancestors needed them to survive
The amygdala emotions and memories
Flashbulb memory
Panic attacks
Weddings
Getting hurt
Shared flashbulb memory
JFK assasnashon
9/11
Covid
2.6- Retrieving memories
retrieval Clues
Priming - retrieval cues
Surronundings
Time
People
Places
mood
context dependent memory
State dependent memory
serial position effect
retrieval practice strategies
2.7- Forgetting and other memories challenges
Forgetting
Forgetting and the two track mind
Amnesia - extreme forgetting - both types effect explicit and episodic memories
Anterograde - cant make new memories
Retrograde - cant remember past info
encoding failure - chose to let it leave
Ebbinghaus - forget the most at first
storage decay
retrieval failure
Interference
Retroactive - new leaning takes that place of the old
Proactive - too much info that you can't remember new things
Memory construction errors
misinformation and imaginative effects
Elizabeth Loftus - reconstruction in our memories
Witness testimony - couple different scouts of the same thing
Source amnesia
Remember something but not where it came from
children's eyewitness recall
Most malleable - can be change - often incorrect
2.8a- Intelligence and achievements :Theories of Intelligence
Is intelligence one General ability?
The cattell-horn-carrol intelligence theory
theories of multiple intelligences
gardeners multiple intelligences
Sternberg's three intelligence
general intelligence grit and deliberate practice
emotional intelligence
2.8b- Intelligence and achievements: Assessing intelligence
early and modern tests of mental abilities
Francis Galton: presuming hereditary genius
Alfred binet: predicting School achievement
Lewis terman: measuring innate intelligence
David Wechsler: testing separate strengths
three tests of a” good” test
Was the test standardized?
Is the test reliable?
Is the test valid?
2.8c- Intelligence and achievements: Stability of and influence on intelligence
Intelligence across the lifespan
stability or change?
aging and intelligence
genetic and environmental influences on intelligence
heredity and intelligence
environment and intelligence
Gene environment interactions
growth mindset
fixed mindset
2.8d-Intelligence and achievements: Group differences and the question of bias
Group differences in intelligence test scores
gender related similarities and differences
racial and ethnic similarities and differences
the question of bias
test takers expectations
Key terms
2.1a
Selective attentioning- Focusing conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
Intentional blindness - Failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere - passing the ball
Change blindness- failing to notice changes in the environment a form of intentional blindness - cards - an object that changes into a different object
Perceptual set - A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
2.1b
Gestalt - an organization whole.Gestalt psychologists emphasize our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful holes
Figure-ground the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground)
Grouping - the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
Depth perception - the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional allows us to judge distance
Visual Cliff - a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals
Binocular cure- a depth cure such as retinal disparity that depends on the use of two eyes
convergence - A cure to nearby objects distance enabled by the brains Combining retinal Imaging
Retinal disparity - a binocular cure for perceived depth by comparing retinal images from the two eyes the brain computes distance the greater the disparity between the two images the closer the object
Monocular cue -depth cue such as interposition or a linear perception available to either I alone
stroboscopic movements- an illustration of continuous movement as in a motion picture experienced when viewing a rapid series of slightly varying still images
Phi phenomenon - in illustration of movement created when two or more adjacent light blink on and off in quick succession
Autokinetic effect -the illusory movement of a still spot of light in a dark room
Perceptual consistency - perceiving objects as unchanging having consistent color brightness shape and size even as illumination and retinal image change
Color consistency - perceiving familiar objects as having consistent color even if changing elimination Alters the wavelengths reflected by the objects
Perceptual adoption - the ability to adjust to change sensory input including an artificially displayed or even inverted visual field
2.2a
Cognition - all the mental activities associated with thinking knowing remembering and communication
Metacognition -cognition about our cognition keeping track of an evaluating our mental process - only humans can do this
Concept - a mental grouping of similar objects events ideas or people
Prototype - a mental image or best example of a category matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for certain items into categories (as when comparing feathered creatures to a prototypical bird such as a crow )
Schema- a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
Assimilation - interpreting or new experiences in terms of our existing schemas
Accommodation - adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information
Creativity - the ability to process new and valuable ideas
Convergent thinking - narrowing the available problems solutions to determine the single best solution
Divergent thinking- expanding the number of possible problem Solutions creative thinking that diverges in different directions
2.2b
Executive functions - cognitive skills that work together enabling us to generate organize plan and Implement goal-directed Behavior - People with ADHD and autism are often said to have bad executive functioning
Algorithm - a metallical logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem contrast with the usually speedier but also more error-prone use of heuristics - computer
Heuristics - A simple thinking strategy a mental shortcut that often allows us to make judgments and solve problems efficiently usually speedier than but also more error-prone than algorithm - human type of algorithm
Fixation- in cognition the inability to see a problem from A New Perspective an obstacle to problem solving
Mental set - a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way often a way that has been successful in the past
Intuition - an effortless immediate automatic feeling or thought as contrasts with explicit conscious to reasoning
Representativeness heuristic -Judging the likelihood of events in terms of how well they seem to represent or match particular prototypes may lead to us ignoring other relevant information
Available heuristic - Judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory if instance is come readily to mind perhaps because of their vividness we presume such events are common
Overconfidence - the tendency to be more confident than correct to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments
Belief perseverance - the Persistence of One initial concept even after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited
Framing -the way an issue is posed how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgments
Nudge - framing choices in a way that encourage people to make beneficial decisions
2.3
Memory- the Persistence of learning over time throughout the encoding storage and retrieval of information
Recall - measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier as on a fill in the blank test
Recognition a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned as on a multiple-choice test
Relearning - a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again
Encoding- the process of getting information into the memory system for example by extracting meaning
Storage - the process of retaining encoded information over time
Retrieval - the process of getting information out of a memory storing
Parallel processing - processing multiple aspects of a stimulus or problem simultaneously
Sensory memory - the immediate very brief recording of sensory information in the memory systems
Short-term memory - briefly activated memory of a few items such as digits of a phone number while calling that is later stored or forgotten
Long-term memory - the relative permanence and Limitless Archives of the memory system includes knowledge skills and experiences
Working memory- a newer understanding of short-term memory conscious active processing of both incoming sensory information and information retrieved from long-term memory
Central executive - a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological Loop and visuospatial sketchpad
Phonological Loop - A memory component that briefly holds auditory information
visuospatial sketchpad - A memory component that briefly holds information about objects appearance and location in space
Neurogenesis - the formation of new neurons
Long-term potential (LTP)- and increase in nerve cells firing potential after brief rapid stimulus a neutral basis for Learning and memory
2.4
Explicit memory - retaliation of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and declare also known as declarative memory
Effortful processing - encoding that requires attention and conscious effort
Automatic processing - unconscious encoding of incidental information such as space time and frequency and of familiar or well learned information such as sounds smells and word meetings
Implicit memory -orientation of learned skills or classically conditioned associations independent of conscious recollection also called non-declarative memory
Ionic memory - a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli a photographic or picture image memory lasting no more than a few tenseconds
Echoic memory- a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli if attention is elsewhere sounds and words can still be recalled within three or four seconds
Chucking - organizing items into familiar manageable units often occurs automatically
Mnemonics - Memory aids especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices
Spacing effect the tendency for distributional studies or practice to yield better long-term retention then is achieved through mace study or practice
Testing effect- enhanced memory after retrieving rather than simply rereading information
Shallow processing- encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words
Deep processing - encoding somatically based on the meaning of words tends to yield the best retention
2.5
Somatic memory - explicit memory of facts and general knowledge one of our two conscious memory systems
Episodic memory - Explicit memory of her personality experienced event one of our two conscious memory systems
Hippocampus -in nuclear Central located in the limbic system helps process explicit memories of facts and events for storage
Memory consolidation - The neutral storage of long-term memory
Flashbulb memory - a clear memory of an emotional significant moment or event
2.6
Priming- the activation often unconscious of particular Association in memory
Encoding specificity principle - the idea that cues and contacts specify to a particular memory will be most affected and helping us recall it
Mood concurrent - memory the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad moods
serial position effect - are tendency to recall best the last items in a list initially a recency effect and the first items in a list after a delay a primary effect
Interleaving - a retrieval practice strategy that involves mixing the studies of different topics
2.7
Anterigram Amnesia- an inability to form new memories
Retrograde Amnesia- An inability to remember information from one's past
Proactive interference- the forward acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information - too much info that you can't remember new things
Retroactive interference- the backwards acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information - new leaning takes that place of the old
Repression- in psychoanalyst theory the basic defense mechanism that banishes from conscious anxiety arousing thoughts feelings and memories
reconciliation -a process in which previously stored memories when retrieved are potentially altered before stored again
Misinformation effect - occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information
Source Amnesia - faulty memory for how when or where information was learned or imagined as when Miss attributing information to a wrong source source Amnesia along with the misinformation effect is at the heart of many false memories
Deja Vu - that Erie sense that “I've experienced this before” cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience
2.8a
Intelligence - the ability to learn from experience solve problems and use knowledge to adapt to new situations
General intelligence (G)- according to Spearman and others underlying all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test
Factor analysis - a statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items called factors on a test used to identify different dimensions of performance that underlies a person's total score
Fluid intelligence (GF)- are ability to reason speedily and abstractly tends to decrease with age especially during late adulthood
Crystallized intelligence (GC)- are accumulated knowledge and verbal skills tend to increase with age
Cattell- horn-Carol (CHC) Theory - The theory that our intelligence is based off G as well as specific abilities bridged by GF and GC
savant syndrome- a condition in which a person otherwise Limited in mental ability has an exceptional specific skill such as drawing
Grit- in Psychology passion and perseverance in the pursuit of long-term goals
Emotional intelligence- the ability to perceive understand manage and use emotions
2.8b
Intelligence test- a method for assessing an individual's mental aptitudes and comparing them with those of others using numerical scores
Achievement test- a test designed to assess what a person has learn
Aptitude test- a test designed to predict a person's future performance aptitude is the capacity to learn
Mental age - a measure of intelligence test performed devised by Binet the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age just a child who does well as an average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of eight
Stanford- binet - the widely used American revision (by terman at Stanford University)of binet original IQ test
Intelligent quotient (IQ)- defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to Chronicle age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus IQ = ma/ca x100) contemporary intelligence test the average performance for a given age is assessed a score of 100
Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)- The wais and its companion versions for children are the most widely used intelligent test they contain verbal and performance (nonverbal) subtests
psychometrics- the scientific study of the measurement of human abilities attitudes and traits
Standardization - defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with performance of a pre-tested group
Normal curve - the bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many physical and psychological attributes most scores fall near the average and fewer and fewer scores Line near the extremes
Flynn effect -the rise in intelligent test performance over time and across cultures
Reliability - the extent to which a test yields consistent results as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test on alternating forms of the test and on retesting
Validity - the extent to which a test measures or predicts what is supposed to see (also predictive Validity)
Content Validity - The extent to which a test sample the behavior that is of Interest
Construct Validity - How much a test measures a concept or trait
Predictive Validity- The success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict it is a signed assessed by Computing the correlation between test scores and the criteria Behavior (also called criterion-related Validity)
2.8c
Cross-sectional - study research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time
Longitudinal study- research that follows and retests the same people over time
Cohort -a group of people sharing common characteristics such as being from a given time.
Growth mindset- a focus on learning and growing rather than viewing abilities as fixed
Fixed mindset- the view that intelligence abilities and talents are unchangeable even with effort
2.8d
Stereotype threat - a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype