Flash cards beginning

1.1 Overview

  • Learning Outcome: Define anatomy, physiology, and pathology.

  • Anatomy: The study of body structures of various sizes, from microscopic (like red blood cells) to macroscopic (like the heart).

    • Example: The size of the heart is approximately that of a human fist.

  • Physiology: The study of how these structures function.

    • Important Questions:

    • Why are red blood cells thinner in the middle?

    • What is the function of red blood cells, and how does their shape facilitate this?

    • Why does the heart speed up or slow down, and what is the significance of its four chambers?

  • Pathology: The study of abnormal functioning and diseases, which requires an understanding of normal anatomy and physiology.

1.2 Terms of Anatomy

  • Learning Outcome: Describe the location of structures using anatomical terms.

  • Standard Anatomical Position:

    • The body is upright.

    • Legs are close together.

    • Feet are flat on the floor.

    • Arms are close to the sides.

    • Head, toes, and palms face forward.

Anatomical Terms of Direction

  • Used to describe locations of structures reliably.

  • Table 1.1 Anatomical Terms of Direction:

    • Anterior (ventral): Front side

    • Example: The trachea is anterior to the esophagus.

    • Posterior (dorsal): Back side

    • Example: The esophagus is posterior to the trachea.

    • Superior: Closer to the top of the head; used for head, neck, and trunk.

    • Example: The lungs are superior to the diaphragm.

    • Inferior: Farther from the head.

    • Lateral: Away from the midline of the body.

    • Example: The lungs are lateral to the heart.

    • Bilateral: Affecting two sides.

    • Proximal: Closer to the connection to the body.

    • Example: The elbow is proximal to the wrist.

    • Distal: Farther from the connection to the body.

    • Example: Fingernails are at the distal end of the fingers.

    • Superficial: Closer to the surface.

    • Example: The epidermis is superficial to the dermis.

    • Deep: Farther from the surface.

    • Example: The hypodermis is deep to the dermis.

    • Right/Left: Denotes sides of the body, not the observer's perspective.

    • Example: The liver is on the right side of the body.

Anatomical Regions

  • Specific region identification aids in precise location description.

  • Table 1.2 Anatomical Regions:

    • Axial: Head, neck, trunk.

    • Example: The ribs are in the axial region.

    • Abdominal: Belly area.

    • Axillary: Armpit region.

    • Cephalic (head):

    • Example: The brain is located in the cranial region.

    • Cervical: Neck region.

    • Facial: Face region.

    • Inguinal: Groin area.

    • Pelvic: Lower trunk region.

    • Thoracic: Chest area.

    • Example: The breasts are in the thoracic region.

    • Umbilical: Navel region.

Abdominal Quadrants and Regions

  • The abdomen can be divided into either four quadrants or nine regions.

    • Four Quadrants:

    • Right Upper Quadrant

    • Left Upper Quadrant

    • Right Lower Quadrant

    • Left Lower Quadrant

    • Nine Regions:

    • Right hypochondriac, epigastric, left hypochondriac, right lumbar, umbilical, left lumbar, right inguinal, hypogastric, left inguinal.

    • Example: The liver is in the right upper quadrant and right hypochondriac region.

Anatomical Planes

  • Table 1.3 Anatomical Planes:

    • Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into right and left portions; if midline, termed midsagittal.

    • Transverse Plane (cross-section): Divides the body into upper and lower parts.

    • Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides body into anterior (front) and posterior (back).

Anatomical Positions

  • Table 1.4 Anatomical Positions

    • Supine: Face up position.

    • Prone: Face down position.

Anatomical Cavities

  • Major body cavities include:

    • Dorsal Cavity: Encloses the brain and spinal cord, lined by meninges.

    • Thoracic Cavity: Contains lungs and heart, with pleural and pericardial cavities.

    • Abdominopelvic Cavity: Contains digestive and reproductive organs, lined by peritoneum.

    • Table 1.5 Anatomical Cavities:

    • Cranial Cavity: Contains brain, lined with meninges.

    • Vertebral Cavity: Contains spinal cord, lined with meninges.

    • Pleural Cavities: Each contains a lung, lined with pleurae.

    • Pericardial Cavity: Contains heart, lined with pericardium.

    • Abdominal Cavity: Contains digestive organs, lined with peritoneum.

    • Pelvic Cavity: Contains urinary bladder, rectum, lined with peritoneum.

Serous Membranes

  • Definitions:

    • Serous Membrane: Double-layered structures with fluid between layers, vital for reducing friction and allowing free movement of organs.

    • Pleura: Surrounds lungs; composed of parietal and visceral pleurae.

    • Pericardium: Surrounds heart; composed of parietal and visceral pericardium.

    • Peritoneum: Lines abdominal cavity and covers abdominal organs.

    • Membrane Extensions: Mesenteries support blood vessels and nerves to organs.

1.3 Terms of Physiology

  • Learning Outcomes: Define homeostasis and explain feedback mechanisms.

Homeostasis

  • Definition: Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment within physiological limits.

    • Example Variables: Blood pressure, temperature, blood oxygen and calcium levels.

    • Importance: Essential for normal function; deviations can lead to dysfunction and disease.

Feedback Mechanisms

  • Negative Feedback: Mechanism to reverse deviation from homeostasis.

    • Example: Blood sugar regulation with insulin and glucagon.

    • Process:

    • Blood sugar rises → Insulin release → Glucose uptake → Blood sugar lowers.

  • Positive Feedback: Mechanism enhances deviation from homeostasis.

    • Example: Uterine contractions during childbirth.

    • Process:

    • Increased pressure on cervix → Prostaglandins release → More contractions → Further pressure increases.

1.4 Terms of Pathology

  • Learning Outcome: Define disease and its relationship with homeostasis.

Definition of Disease

  • Disease: Abnormal function of organs/systems leading to homeostatic disruption.

    • Categories:

      • Acute: Rapid onset, severe symptoms, short duration.

      • Chronic: Slow progression, long duration.

Predisposing Factors of Disease

  • Definition: Factors that increase risk for disease.

  • Types:

    • Uncontrollable: Age, heredity, gender.

    • Controllable: Lifestyle, environment.

Age as a Factor

  • Aging results in less efficient organ function.

  • Prevention strategies: Regular exercise, healthy eating, and screenings for health issues.

Disease Categories Affecting Children

  • Infections: Greater vulnerability due to underdeveloped immune systems.

    • Example: Chickenpox, measles.

  • Congenital Disorders: Present at birth due to development issues.

    • Example: Cleft lip, failure of the upper lip to fuse properly during fetal development.