Restoration and Revolution

Restoration and Revolution in Early Modern Britain

Introduction to British Political History

• Focus on late 17th century to 18th century.

• Considerable political turmoil during this period.

• Innovations in governance emerged as solutions to political challenges.

• Aristocratic parliament became dominant in British government in the 18th century while monarchy retained significant powers.

The Monarchy During the Restoration

• King Charles II ascended to the throne in 1660 after settlement with the Protectorate government.
    - The Protectorate was unpopular due to political and economic turmoil, and social upheaval.
    - There was a strong public desire for monarchy restoration.

• Charles II was the son of Charles I, who had been executed.

• The period of Charles II and his brother is called the Restoration.

• The monarchy enjoyed goodwill among the English people; balance of power existed between the king and parliament.
    - Charles II worked cooperatively with Parliament.
    - Known for his playboy lifestyle, enjoying parties, art, and numerous mistresses.

• His marriage to a Portuguese princess resulted in the English gaining the port city of Bombay (Mumbai) in India.

• Charles had no heirs; his brother James posed a succession problem due to his conversion to Catholicism.
    - Fears surrounded James inheriting the throne due to anti-Catholic sentiment in England.
    - Charles II refused to remove James from succession despite public pressures.

Reign of James II and the Glorious Revolution

• James II came to power in 1685.
    - His rule was marked by unpopularity and accusations of incompetence.
    - Foreign policy realignment with France angered traditional allies like the Dutch.
    - Attempted to grant rights to Catholics and Protestant dissenters but met with backlash.

• The Glorious Revolution of 1688 was a response to James II’s unpopular rule.
    - The term coined by later Protestant historians emphasized progression toward parliamentary rule.

• Key Events Leading to the Glorious Revolution:
    - Birth of a male heir raised fears of a Catholic dynasty in alliance with France.
    - Propaganda labeled the heir as the "warming pan baby" to delegitimize James's claim.
    - Dutch cousin William of Orange intervened, leading an invasion in November 1688.
    - James's support collapsed; he fled to France, leaving power to William.
    - William and his wife, Mary, were invited to rule as joint constitutional monarchs.
    - They accepted by signing the Declaration of Right and the Bill of Rights in 1689, limiting royal power and affirming parliamentary authority.

The Reign of William and Mary

• William and Mary established as popular monarchs, especially Mary II, who died childless.

• William brought Dutch supporters to Britain, introducing some resentments regarding foreign influence.

• Their rule led to increased tensions with France, resulting in regular warfare.
    - The Act of Settlement in 1701 ensured that only a Protestant could ascend the throne, excluding James and his descendants.

Queen Anne and the Unification of Britain

• Queen Anne became the last Stuart monarch after William’s death in 1702.
    - Traditionally portrayed as politically inept, but recent evaluations note her effectiveness in maintaining the monarchy.
    - Anne's reign saw the Act of Union in 1707, which unified England and Scotland, marking the formation of Great Britain.

• She effectively navigated court factions and conducted war against France, affirming Britain’s European standing.

Political Philosophies and Theorists in Early Modern Britain

• England's government divergence: limitations on monarchy developed within the context of Protestant influence.

• Two significant political philosophers emerged during this period:

  ### Thomas Hobbes
  - Background: a royalist who published The Leviathan in 1651 after his exile in France.
  - Ethical views: denied objective morality; believed everyone has subjective interpretations of good and evil.
  - Central question: How do people exist in community?
  - Concept of social contract: Individuals enter a commonwealth surrendering rights to a sovereign, which could be a collective body.
  - No right to rebellion; the contract is between the community and the sovereign, not individual. Sovereign’s authority establishes order and religion.

  ### John Locke
  - Background: a Puritan from a politically stable environment, wrote the Two Treatises on Government.
  - Political thought began with a more egalitarian state of nature than Hobbes; emphasized life, liberty, and property.
  - Government: an impartial entity for security and preservation; the sovereign must have consent.
  - Opposed state-imposed religion and argued for toleration; belief in tabula rasa, the idea that knowledge builds over time from experience.

Shifts in Political Power from 17th to 18th Century

• Political discourse transformed from absolute monarchy to a framework of limited governance.

• Rise of the Hanoverian Dynasty after the death of Queen Anne in 1714, beginning parliament's increasing power.

• George I became king, showing more allegiance to Hanover over Britain, resulting in Parliament gaining authority.

• The monarchy retained powers (call/dissolve Parliament, declare war, appoint officials) but could not suspend laws.

• Parliamentary control shifted military funding, tax approval, indicated power balance.

The Emergence of Political Parties

• Development of political parties: Whigs (pro-Parliament) vs. Tories (pro-monarchy).
    - Whigs championed against royal abuses; Tories supported royal authority and the Church of England.

• Party loyalty emerged, with the idea of a loyal opposition gaining traction in Britain.

• Increasing political parties reflected a maturing political system during this era.

• Prime Minister Role: Robert Walpole as the first prime minister effectively managed relationships within Parliament.

Expansion of British Government and Bureaucracy

• Transition from limited bureaucracy to an expanding central government with efficient tax collection.

• Increased bureaucracy reflected growing administrative reach and economic strength by the end of the 18th century.

• Taxes were collected across all social classes, enhancing Britain's financial clout in contrast to other European powers.

• The participation of capable individuals in government boosted political engagement.

Conclusion

• By the late 18th century, Britain's governance structure had evolved beyond earlier absolute monarchy into a more representative assembly, influenced significantly by parliament.

• The aristocratic consensus preserved social continuity amid political instability, positioning Britain uniquely in European politics.