Truth and Opinion – Comprehensive Study Notes

Topic focus: Truth vs. Opinion; understanding definitions, theories, criteria, evaluation, biases, fallacies, and practical exercises.

Structure of slides/sections covered: vocabulary, definitions, theories, criteria, comparisons, evaluation steps, biases, fallacies, activities, rubrics, and assignments.

Key vocabulary and definitions

• Truth: refers to being in accord with fact or reality, or fidelity to an original or standard.
• Objectivity: a philosophical concept of being true independently from individual subjectivity caused by perception, emotions, or imagination.
• Subjective: relating to the subject's personal perspective, feelings, beliefs, desires, or discovery, as opposed to an independent, objective point of view.
• Bias: a disproportionate weight in favor of or against an idea or thing, usually in a way that is closed-minded, prejudicial, or unfair.
• Claim: a statement essentially arguable, but used as a primary point to support or prove an argument.

Initial observation exercise (Page 3-4)

• Photo-based truth exercise: two statements about a photo; identify which statement is true based on observation and explain why.
• Process questions encourage reflection on:
• How easily truth can be identified.
• Truths that are true for others but not for you, and vice versa.
• Emotional responses to discovering statements true for others but not for you.

What is Truth? (Page 6)

• Truth is not given a single universal definition; philosophy shows no simple definition.
• Conventional definition: the quality or state of being in conformity with fact and reality.

Theories of Truth (Pages 7-9)

• Correspondence Theory of Truth
• Core idea: a proposition is true when it conforms to facts or states of affairs; aligns with reality.
• Example: $ext{Snow is white}$
• Coherence Theory of Truth
• Core idea: a proposition is true to the extent that it coheres with other true concepts; ideas form an inter-related system.
• Example: $2+2=4$
• Pragmatic Theory of Truth
• Core idea: a proposition is true if acting on it yields satisfactory practical results; belief is true if useful.
• Example:
  • • Statement: "Earning a lot of money is of paramount importance to everyone" (used as an example of what might be considered true if it leads to useful action, depending on context).

Five Criteria of Truth (Pages 10-14)
1) Coherence

• Definition: a proposition is true if it coheres with other propositions; consistency (no contradictions).
• Example: WHO declares COVID-19 a pandemic; global agreement among countries; no contradictions with pronouncements.
  2) Evidence
• Definition: empirical data can establish truth through experimentation and observation.
• Example: The Bicol Region is the Southern Region of Luzon; Region V; composed of six provinces: $ext{Albay}, ext{Catanduanes}, ext{Camarines Norte}, ext{Camarines Sur}, ext{Mabate}, ext{Sorsogon}$ (typo in original text suggests Mabate but typically Masbate).
  3) Consensus (Consensus Theory)
• Definition: truth when a group of people can secure agreement among participants (cabinet, lawmakers, task forces).
• Example: SAP (social amelioration program) is a cash emergency subsidy program for 18 million Filipino families; mandated by Bayanihan To Heal As One Act, signed by the President on March 25, 2020; agreement by cabinet, lawmakers, and Inter-Agency Task Force.
  4) Pragmatic utility (Pragmatic Theory, reiterated)
• Definition: truth if it is useful; the utility of the statement determines its truth value.
• Example: "Sipag at tiyaga ang mga susi sa tagumpay" (Diligence and perseverance are keys to success).
  5) Scientific consensus and method
• Definition: truth when research consensus aligns with the scientific method; herbal medicine example.
• Example: Herbal medicine is the use of medicinal plants for prevention and treatment; research supports its use for prevention and treatment of diseases; many people use this medicine in place of or alongside conventional medicines.

Validation questions for truth (Page 15)

• a) Is the statement coherent and non-contradictory?
• b) Is the statement verifiable with evidence?
• c) Does the statement have consensus with a group?
• d) Is the statement useful?
• e) Does the statement agree with researches?

Pascal on opinion (Page 16)

• Blaise Pascal’s view: opinion as the "queen of the world"; opinion is a collective of feelings, passions, and biases; based on personal perspective; cannot be proven with factual evidence, unlike truth.

What is an Opinion? (Pages 17-18)

• General definition: a judgment, viewpoint, or statement considered subjective; thoughts, beliefs, feelings, and estimates without evidence or reasoned judgment.
• Dr. Rhonda Dubec (2019): opinion is what a person believes or thinks about something; may not be based on facts; can be influenced by feelings, thoughts, perspective, desires, attitude, experiences, beliefs, values, etc.; cannot be tested by concrete evidence.
• Key implication: opinions lack the verifiability that supports truth claims.

Distinguishing Truth from Opinion (Page 19)

• Importance: opinions can mislead; facts have objective grounds while opinions are often agenda-driven.

Differences between Truth and Opinion (Page 20)

• Truth vs Opinion differences summarized:
  1) Truth can be verified or proved with evidence or empirical data; opinion expresses judgment or belief.
  2) Truth relies on facts; opinion relies on assumption and perception.
  3) Truth is typically objective and universal; opinion is subjective and personal.
  4) Truth is useful for informing arguments; opinions are often used for persuasion.

Interactive exercise: Supply Me! (Page 21)

• Column A: Truth statements (given).
• Column B: Your Opinion about each truth in Column A.
• Examples:
• Truth: Rabbits are mammals.
• Truth: The sun rises in the east.
• Truth: There are 26 letters in the English alphabet. $26$ letters.
• Truth: The Polar bear needs fat to stay warm.
• Truth: The earth has only one moon.
• Students provide corresponding opinions for each truth.

Discerning Truth from Opinion (Page 22)

• Distinguishing truth from opinion leads to wisdom; enhances understanding of differing views.
• Philosophy as a tool to determine truthful and acceptable ideas; supports building a better, wiser worldview.

Evaluating Opinions (Page 23-24)

• Five tips (Gallinero and Estaris, 2017) for evaluating opinions:
• Origin of the material: assess credibility of sources (reputation, audience, authenticity).
• Reliability: credibility of the person; expertise on the topic.
• Purpose: inform vs persuade; evaluate reason and evidence.
• Bias: recognize personal biases and partiality; avoid assuming neutrality.
• Assumptions: identify beliefs presented as facts without proof.
• Bias is defined (Page 25) as predisposition or inclination that can distort judgment; important in critical thinking and philosophy.
• Examples of bias words (Page 26): think, probably, guess, believe, best, fun, exciting, miserable, sweet, perspective, sad, favorite, point of view, understand.

Truth vs. Opinion: Comparative Distinction (Page 27)

• Truth characteristics (in contrast to opinion): objective, evidence-based, reality-based, uses unbiased language.
• Opinion characteristics: circumstantial, emotional, biased language.

Critical thinking and fallacies (Pages 28-36)

• Fallacies defined generally: a fallacy is a logical error or deceptive argument that does not follow the rules of inference; fallacies can be intentional or unintentional.
• Formal fallacies (Page 30-31)
• Definition: errors in logical form; violations of deductive logic rules.
• Example: Syllogism structure; major premise, minor premise, conclusion.
• Example given: Major premise: All humans are mortal. Minor premise: All Greeks are humans. Conclusion: All Greeks are mortal.
• Note: Validity requires universal forms and at least one universal premise; if both premises are particulars, a valid conclusion cannot be drawn.
• Informal fallacies (Pages 32-35)
• 9 common informal fallacies highlighted (from Dr. Abella’s Introduction to Philosophy of the Human Person):
  • ad hominem: attacking the person rather than the argument; example: "Of course he believes that the government is flawed… he is a rebel… a communist!"
  • appeal to force: using threats or force to advance an argument; example: "If this peace agreement is not signed, we will go to war."
  • appeal to emotion: appealing to pity or empathy to win an argument; example: parenting-style or family impact claims.
  • appeal to the popular (bandwagon): argument is acceptable because many people accept it.
  • appeal to tradition (ancient wisdom): argument is acceptable because it has been true for a long time.
  • begging the question (circular reasoning): restating the claim as proof; example: "Marriage should be between man and woman… it has been so for a long time… therefore it should remain so."
  • what is presented as a right is used to block opposition (free speech example): "I have the right for free speech, therefore you cannot stop me from talking."
  • other informal fallacies illustrated (some examples shown in the slide): social/power-based arguments; hasty generalizations; misapplied cause, etc. (Refer to the slide list for exact phrasing in the lesson.)
• Additional examples (as listed):
  • The idea is presented as acceptable to people because a lot of people accept it.
  • Example: "Every boy your age already has a girlfriend, you should go find one." (appeal to the popular)
  • Example: "Marriage should be between man and woman. It has been so for a long time in this country; it should remain so today and in the future." (appeal to tradition)
  • Example: "I have the right for free speech, therefore you cannot stop me from talking." (begging the question or related rights-based assertion)
• Other fallacy categories covered:
• cause-and-effect fallacy: assuming a causal link between unrelated events.
• fallacy of composition: assuming what is true for a part is true for the whole.
• fallacy of division: assuming what is true for the whole is true for its parts.
• Examples provided:
  • "Ever since you bought that sweater, everything has been going wrong in your life. You should get rid of it." (causal fallacy)
  • "These cases of robbery in this district have convinced me that this city has become a den of thieves and criminals" (composition/overgeneralization in a faulty inference)
  • "You come from a family of doctors and intellectuals! Surely you can do better in this course." (appeal to authority/identity assertion)

Activities and assessment (Pages 36-38)

• Activity 1: Stand your position
• Identify a local issue, state your position, present strong evidence, and expose fallacies from the opposing side.
• Issues suggested: A) Closure of ABS-CBN; B) West Philippine Sea; C) provide evidence/arguments.
• Rubrics (Page 37): Evaluation criteria for content quality, use of reliable evidence, and clarity of language (example: five-point scale and descriptors).
• Activity 2: News Evaluation (Page 38)
• Look for fallacies in news sources; create a table with News Source and Fallacies in reasoning.
• Exercise: Identify fallacies in statements (Page 39)
• Given statements, identify the fallacy type and its characteristics.
• Assignment (Page 40): Region V Bicol
• Task: Find a short article; read and analyze; distinguish truth from opinion.
• Format: Title of the Article and the Source; Truth found in the article; Opinion found in the article.

Practical implications and connections

• Distinguishing truth from opinion is essential for rational decision-making and critical thinking.
• Understanding theories of truth helps evaluate claims across contexts (science, politics, media).
• Criteria of truth provide a structured way to assess statements: coherence, evidence, consensus, usefulness, and alignment with research.
• Awareness of bias and fallacies improves argumentation, reduces manipulation, and supports wiser judgments.
• Real-world relevance: media literacy, public discourse, policy analysis, and personal belief formation rely on applying these concepts.

Quick reference notes (summary reminders)

• Truth is typically objective, verifiable, and widely corroborated; opinions are subjective and may lack verifiability.
• Theories of truth offer lenses: correspondence (fact-reality alignment), coherence (systemic consistency), and pragmatism (practical usefulness).
• Five criteria of truth: coherence, evidence, consensus, usefulness, and research support.
• Evaluation tips emphasize source origin, reliability, purpose, bias, and assumptions.
• Fallacies come in formal (logic form) and informal (content-based) types; awareness helps avoid deceptive reasoning.
• Practice activities (Stand Your Position, News Evaluation) encourage applying these concepts to current events and media.

LaTeX notes for formulas and numeric references from the transcript

• Example of a mathematical truth: $2+2=4$
• Provincial list (six provinces in the Bicol Region): $ext{Albay}, ext{Catanduanes}, ext{Camarines Norte}, ext{Camarines Sur}, ext{Masbate}, ext{Sorsogon}$
• Regional and demographic numbers: $18{,}000{,}000$ Filipino families (in SAP context).
• Date reference: March 25, 2020: Bayanihan To Heal As One Act signing date: $25 ext{ March } 2020$