What were the main developments in church-state relations under Hitler and Mussolini?

In Germany and Italy there were significant developments in Church-state relations during the dictatorships of Hitler and Mussolini. Both leaders were baptised Catholics, but neither was religious. Mussolini firmly believed that “religion is an absurdity in practice and in men a disease.” Hitler would have shared a similar view. However, both tried to improve relations with the Church before endeavouring to control it. Ultimately, Mussolini compromised his views in hopes of building a harmonious relationship with the Church. Hitler nearly always emphasized his control in his church-state relations. When this was challenged it led mixed results for those who stood up to him including arrests and executions. But such opposition also led to a complete U-turn in Nazi state policy in relation to his T4 (euthanasia) project.
The non-religious Mussolini needed the support of the Catholic Church. The position of the church had long been a source of controversy in Italy and became known as the Roman Question. Long lasting quarrels over the Church’s loss of land in Italian unification in 1870 had soured church-state relations. Pope Pius IX referred to himself as “the prisoner of the Vatican”. Mussolini was an atheist, but he realised the benefit of reaching an understanding with the Church. He once said, “The Pope is a friend I cannot lose and an enemy I cannot afford to make”. To woo the Churches’ favour, Mussolini married his partner and had his children baptised. In 1922 he introduced religious instruction into schools and universities, swearing in public were banned as were contraceptives and divorce. Mussolini’s Battle for Births in 1925 was supported greatly by the Catholic Church. Mothers were given medals by the state if they had 5 babies or more. By 1926, Church relations had greatly improved. Indeed the Church saw Mussolini as a bulwark against the growth of Communism.
The signing of the Lateran Treaty in 1929 was a major development in church-state relations. The pact involved a final settlement of the Roman Question and regulated relations between the Church and the state. The Vatican became an independent sovereign state, and 760 million lire was given in compensation to the Vatican for loss of Papal land. Catholicism became the state religion and religious education was made compulsory in all schools. In return, the Pope agreed to stay out of political affairs. The treaty drastically improved
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church-relations and therefore unifying Italy, making it easier to control. Throughout the Catholic world, Mussolini’s prestige rose.
However, the relations weren’t always so harmonious. Shortly after the Treaty was signed, Mussolini claimed the Catholic Church was ‘no longer free but subordinate to the State”. In 1931, he disbanded Catholic Action, a Catholic youth movement, which angered the Pope. This was resolved in 1932 but an uneasy peace followed. Now firmly under the sway of Hitler, Mussolini’s 1938 Charter of Race was strongly criticised by Pope Pius XI because of its anti-Semitic views. The Church also opposed totalitarian rule; many books containing fascist ideologies were banned in Catholic schools. Ultimately Mussolini failed in his objective to control the Catholic Church.
Hitler had a more aggressive approach to church state relations. He was baptised a Catholic but had nothing but contempt for a religion. He believed “National Socialism and Christianity are irreconcilable.” At first the Catholic Church was willing to work with the new regime, they like Italian Church they saw the Nazis as bulwark against Communism. A Concordat was signed in 1933. Like Mussolini’s Italy, this agreement brought the Nazi regime international recognition. Freedom of worship and Catholic education in schools were guaranteed and Catholic organisations were protected. In return, the church was to withdraw from politics. Hitler limited the Church through his control of newspapers, youth movements and the education system, he also fired Catholic civil servants.
The Nazis wanted to create a unified Protestant Church that would be easier to control. At the time, each region had its own self-governing Protestant Church, totalling up to 28 separate churches in Germany. In July 1933, the regional Protestant churches were replaced by a single large State Church - Reichskirche and Nazi supporting Ludwig Muller was elected Reich Bishop. The Reichskirche was heavily influenced by the Nazis and the saying “Hitler is the new Messiah” was adopted. It combined Christianity with racism and Anti-Semitism and called for the removal of the ‘Jewish’ Old Testament. Pastors of Jewish origin were removed, the Gestapo were allowed to monitor sermons, and Protestant youth groups had to join the Hitler Youth.
In response The Confessional Church, led by Martin Niemoller was set up to oppose Nazi policies. Opposition was dealt with rapidly as over 700 pastors were arrested and Niemoller was sent to concentration camps. Protestant pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer would take as opposition as far as to becoming involved in a plot to assassinate Hitler.
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After the Nazis broke the Concordat, church-state relations deteriorated rapidly. Various Catholic organisations were persecuted, and Church property was seized. The majority of Catholic youth groups, which were viewed as rivals to the Hitler Youth, were banned by 1938. Intimidation was used to stop parents sending children to Catholic schools.
In 1937, Pope Pius XI issued “With Burning Anguish’, a papal encyclical denouncing Hitler for breaking the Concordat. It was smuggled into Germany and copies were secretly printed and distributed. There were some effective resistance from some individuals to some Nazi policies. Bishop Von Galen of Munster led a vigorous campaign against the Nazi euthanasia (T4) programmes, it was officially abandoned as a result, although it secretly continued. Committed Catholics played a large role in the opposition to Hitler and many of which were arrested and executed. These included Erich Klausener, a German Catholic politician and Catholic martyr in the "Night of the Long Knives".
Mussolini had succeeded in achieving his aims of ending the 60 year-feud between the State of Italy and the Catholic Church but failed in silencing Church criticism. Hitler was unsuccessful in his aims of controlling the Churches in Germany. There was no significant decline in church membership. However, ultimately both fascist regimes failed in reducing Churches’ input into the everyday lives of the Germans.
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