Notes on the Jewish Revolt and the Siege of Masada

Political Instability and the Rise of the Judean Revolt (70 A.D.)

• Context of the Roman Empire: By $70\,A.D.$, the Roman Empire was embroiled in conflict following the downfall of the tyrant Nero. Just months prior, four powerful generals competed for control of the capital and the position of Emperor.
• Opportunistic Uprisings: The demise of Rome's first imperial dynasty led to political instability, prompting far-off client states, power players, and subjugated peoples to strike out for independence. This occurred in regions ranging from the forests of Germany to the deserts of Africa.
• The Situation in Judea: The most significant and all-encompassing conflict took place in the Holy Land, specifically the recently provincialized client state of Judea. The homeland of the Jews had exploded into a massive rebellion four years earlier ($66\,A.D.$).
• Messianic Fever: The region was gripped by messianic millenarian fever. Various candidates claimed the title "King of the Jews" to throw off Roman rule, including:
  • Hezekiah: A charismatic bandit leader.
  • The Samaritan: A mysterious rebel figure.
  • The Egyptian: Another rebel who attempted to lead a movement.
  • Outcome: Each of these would-be messiahs failed, with most being executed via crucifixion.
• Self-Governance in Jerusalem: According to the writer Pliny the Elder, Jerusalem was one of the most celebrated cities in the East. For four years ($66-70\,A.D.$), the city had been self-governed by Jewish rebels.

The Siege and Destruction of Jerusalem

• Arrival of Titus: In the summer of $70\,A.D.$, the Roman general Titus arrived outside the walls of Jerusalem. The city sat astride two holy mountains, featuring vast palaces and public buildings largely constructed by the pro-Roman client king Herod a generation earlier.
• Population and Conditions: The city, which had thrived for $1,000$ years since the days of Solomon and David, was overcrowded. Estimates for the number of Jews hemmed in during the siege include:
  • Tacitus: Suggests $600,000$ people.
  • Josephus: Suggests as many as $1,000,000$ people.
• Internal Strife: Inside the city, three vying warlords held different quarters. The population included die-hard religious fanatics, opportunistic bandits, and innocent civilians caught in the carnage. Josephus notes there were as many as $24$ Jewish sects violently struggling over the capital and food supplies.
• Roman Military Strength: Titus commanded $60,000$ legionaries along with local Syrian auxiliaries. His father, Vespasian, a veteran commander and the first non-Julio-Claudian Emperor, had left Titus in charge to pursue his claim to the throne in Rome.
• Tactics of Fear: By mid-July, Titus utilized psychological warfare by crucifying $500$ prisoners every single day. The hills surrounding Jerusalem were covered with splayed corpses, and bodies rotted in the streets due to both the Roman attack and internal Jewish infighting.
• The Fall of the Temple Mount: In late July, after four months of siege, Titus ordered the attack on the Temple Mount, the heart of Judaism. Although Titus reportedly sought to preserve the site, an orgy of violence ensued.
  • The Gold Rumor: Syrian auxiliaries reportedly cut open the bellies of living Jews to retrieve gold they believed had been swallowed for safekeeping.
  • The Burning of the Temple: Titus finally ordered the Holy Temple to be set ablaze. It was the only official temple in the land, the sole place to commune with God and make sacrifices for $1,000$ years. It was said to have housed the Ark of the Covenant containing the Ten Commandments given to Moses.
  • Total Destruction: The temple was reduced to rubble within hours. Josephus claims the destruction was so absolute that nothing remained to remind people a city had ever stood there. Today, only one wall (the Western Wall) survives.

The Aftermath and Religious Transformation

• Extermination of the Davidic Line: According to the historian Eusebius, Vespasian ordered every descendant of the royal line of David to be hunted down and killed to prevent future messianic claims.
• The Shift to Rabbinic Judaism: In the aftermath of the Temple's destruction ($70\,A.D.$), religious elders altered the teachings of the faith toward more pacifist leanings. The focus of veneration shifted from Temple sacrifice to the home and the study of the Holy Book, the Torah.
  • Result: By the $2nd$ Century $A.D.$, this evolved into Rabbinic Judaism. Christianity also branched off significantly during this period.
• The Final Holdout: Despite the fall of Jerusalem, one sect continued to resist in the desert to the south, on a plateau by the Dead Sea at the fortress of Masada.

The Legacy and Construction of King Herod

• Herod's Profile: Herod was the ambitious son of a regional governor who rose to become a client king of Rome. He was a close friend to Augustus Caesar and Mark Antony. He was known for his massive construction projects, including:
  • Caesarea: A magnificent port city.
  • Herodium: A massive palace fortress.
  • Jerusalem Temple Complex: Arguably the largest in the world at the time.
  • Masada: His ultimate winter lair and fortress.
• Political Structure: Herod split the positions of High Priest and King, making the latter a secular role. He supplied Rome with a constant flow of coin to maintain his legitimacy, though many Jews viewed him as illegitimate because he was not descended from King David.
• Roman Presence during Herod: Under Herod, $600$ Roman soldiers were stationed on the Temple Mount, and an imperial eagle was placed over the portal to the Temple.

Historical Context of Roman-Judean Relations

• $2nd$ Century $B.C.$: Judea was ruled by the Seleucid Kings (successors of Alexander the Great). The War of the Maccabees resulted in Jewish independence for about a century.
• $63\,B.C.$: Pompey the Great became involved in a Jewish civil war between Hyrcanus and Aristobulus. Pompey captured Jerusalem after a three-week siege, drawing Judea into the Roman sphere as an allied client state.
• $6\,A.D.$: Emperor Augustus annexed Judea as a full province, ending semi-independent rule and initiating decades of instability and clashes with rebel cells.

The Final Campaign: Herodium, Machaerus, and Jada's Forest

• Vespasian's Reorganization: After the fall of Jerusalem, Judea became a full status province governed by an imperial legate. A legion was permanently based in Judea for the first time.
• Governors:
  • Sextus Cerealis: Acted as a stop-gap governor.
  • Lucilius Bassus ($71\,A.D.$): Former commander of the fleet at Ravenna. He captured the strongholds of Herodium and Machaerus.
  • The Jada's Forest Massacre: Bassus wiped out a large host of refugees from Jerusalem and Machaerus who were hiding in the forest.
• Flavius Silva ($73\,A.D.$): Replaced Bassus and led the final campaign against Masada.

The Siege of Masada: Forces and Fortifications

• The Sicarii: A radical Jewish sect known for carrying the sica (curved dagger). They seized Masada from a Roman garrison in $66\,A.D.$ and were led by Eleazar ben Yair.
• Roman Forces: Flavius Silva commanded the $10th$ Legion, consisting of approximately $5,000$ battle-hardened veterans, supported by auxiliary infantry and cavalry.
• Defenders: The Sicarii numbered only $967$ people, including women and children.
• The Fortress Assets:
  • Natural Defenses: Situated on a tall cliff with deep ravines. The eastern approach was called "The Snake."
  • Walls: Made of dolomite stone, $18$ feet high and $12$ feet wide, with $37$ interval towers.
  • Provisions: Storehouses held grain, oil, and wine that Josephus claimed were nearly a century old but stayed fresh due to the dry climate. The plateau had soil for farming and a complex system of aqueducts and cisterns.

Roman Engineering and the Fall of the Fortress

• Siege Lines: Silva built a circumvallation wall around the entire fortress and established seven fortified camps (designated $A$ through $G$ by modern historians). Camps $B$ and $F$ housed the legionaries.
• The Siege Ramp: To reach the walls, the Romans occupied the "White Cliff" ($450$ feet below the summit) and built a massive earth ramp $300$ feet high, topped by a $75$-foot wide stone pier.
• The Siege Tower: A $90$-foot tall tower plated in iron was moved up the ramp. It served as a platform for bolt shooters and stone throwers.
• The Breach:
  1. A battering ram demolished the outer stone wall.
  2. The defenders built an inner wall of earth and timber which absorbed the impact of the ram.
  3. Silva ordered the use of incendiary projectiles. A change in wind initially threatened the Roman engines but eventually shifted back to burn the Jewish wooden wall.

The Final Act: Mass Suicide and Imperial Legacy

• The Choice of Eleazar: Realizing defeat was inevitable, Eleazar ben Yair convinced his followers to commit mass suicide rather than face Roman slavery or execution.
• The Execution of the Suicide Pact: Men killed their own wives and children, then drew lots to kill each other. The final man set the palace on fire before taking his own life.
• Roman Entry: When the Romans breached the fort at dawn, they found only two women and five children who had hidden in a cistern. Silva was reportedly astonished by the fearlessness of the defenders.
• Long-term Consequences:
  • A handful of Sicarii fled to Egypt and Cyrenica under a leader named Jonathan but were quickly crushed.
  • In the $2nd$ Century $A.D.$ under Emperor Hadrian, Jews were banned from entering the rebuilt Jerusalem (Aelia Capitolina).
  • The scattering of non-temple-based Judaism and the rise of Christianity ultimately shaped the future of the Roman Empire and the Western world.