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APUSH Midterm review
Pre-Columbian Era to American Revolution (1490-1783)
Concepts
Age of Exploration- The period during which European powers explored and colonized the Americas, driven by the desire for new trade routes, wealth, and land
Encomienda System-A labor system instituted by the Spanish crown during the colonization of the Americas, which granted colonists the right to demand tribute and forced labor from indigenous people in exchange for protection and Christianization
Columbian Exchange-The transfer of goods, crops, and diseases between the New World and the Old World, which greatly impacted the economies and populations of both hemispheres
Spanish and Portuguese Exploration-The exploration efforts of Spain and Portugal in the 15th and 16th centuries, marked by the voyages of explorers like Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama, aimed to expand their empires and find new trade opportunities
French and English Exploration- The exploration efforts of France and England during the 16th and 17th centuries, characterized by the search for new trade routes and territories, led to significant colonial ventures in North America and the establishment of permanent settlements
European attitudes towards Native Americans- The perceptions of European settlers often ranged from viewing Native Americans as noble savages to considering them as obstacles to colonization, leading to a complex relationship marked by both cooperation and conflict
Disease and death- The introduction of European diseases, such as smallpox and measles, had devastating effects on Native American populations, resulting in significant loss of life and altering the demographic landscape of the continent
Mercantilism- An economic theory that emphasizes the importance of accumulating wealth through trade, mercantilism was a driving force behind European colonial expansion, as nations sought to increase their gold reserves and establish a favorable balance of trade
Imperialism- A policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force, imperialism played a crucial role in shaping the interactions between European powers and the Americas, often resulting in the exploitation of indigenous resources and peoples
“Starving Time”- A period of severe hardship experienced by the Jamestown settlers in 1609-1610, during which food shortages and conflict with Native Americans led to the death of many colonists; this catastrophic event highlighted the challenges of sustaining a colony in an unfamiliar environment and underscored the reliance on Native American assistance for survival.
Indentured Servitude-A labor system where individuals worked for a predetermined number of years in exchange for passage to America, indentured servitude became a key component of the labor force in the colonies, providing a temporary solution to labor shortages but often leading to exploitation and harsh conditions for the servants
Southern Colonies- Southern Colonies: Characterized by an economy based on plantation agriculture, the Southern Colonies relied heavily on enslaved labor for the cultivation of cash crops such as tobacco, rice, and indigo, which significantly shaped social and economic structures in the region.
Middle Colonies- The Middle Colonies were known for their diverse population and a mix of agricultural and industrial economies, producing grains and livestock while also fostering trade and commerce, which contributed to a more tolerant and pluralistic society compared to other regions
New England Colonies- The New England Colonies were characterized by a mixed economy that included small-scale farming, fishing, and trade, with a strong emphasis on community and religious values, which influenced their social structure and governance
Puritanism- A dominant religious force in the New England Colonies, Puritanism emphasized strict moral codes, community cohesion, and a commitment to education, which fostered the establishment of schools and churches that played a central role in colonial life
“City Upon a Hill”- A phrase coined by John Winthrop, referring to the belief that the Massachusetts Bay Colony would serve as a model of Christian charity and righteousness, showcasing the Puritan vision of creating a society that would inspire others
Slavery vs Indentured Servitude (labor systems)-Slavery was characterized by the forced labor of individuals who were considered property, with no rights or freedom, while indentured servitude involved individuals voluntarily signing contracts to work for a specific number of years in exchange for passage to America and the promise of land or freedom at the end of their service
Holy Experiments- Refers to the attempts by various religious groups, particularly the Quakers in Pennsylvania, to create communities based on religious tolerance and equality, where different faiths could coexist peacefully
Resistance to slavery- Resistance to slavery took various forms, including slave revolts, such as the Stono Rebellion, as well as everyday acts of defiance like work slowdowns, escape attempts, and the establishment of maroon communities
Atlantic Trade (Triangular)- This trade system connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas, facilitating the exchange of goods, enslaved people, and raw materials, significantly impacting the economies and societies of all three regions
Salutary Neglect- A policy adopted by the British government in the 18th century that allowed the American colonies considerable freedom in economic and political matters, which ultimately fostered a spirit of independence and self-governance
End of Salutary Neglect- The end of Salutary Neglect in the mid-18th century marked a shift in British colonial policy, leading to increased regulation and taxation that fueled colonial discontent and laid the groundwork for the American Revolution
“New” Colonial Policy- The new colonial policy implemented by the British government after the end of Salutary Neglect aimed to tighten control over the colonies through stricter enforcement of trade laws and imposition of new taxes, further escalating tensions between Britain and its American colonies
People/Groups
Conquistadores- Spanish explorers and conquerors in the Americas, known for their expeditions that led to the fall of indigenous empires, such as the Aztecs and Incas, and for establishing Spanish colonial rule.
Columbus- Italian explorer credited with the discovery of the Americas in 1492, whose voyages opened the way for the widespread European exploration and colonization of the continent.
Bartolomé de Las Casas- Spanish Dominican friar and historian who advocated for the rights of indigenous peoples and criticized the harsh treatment they received from Spanish colonizers.
James Smith-English explorer and one of the founders of the Jamestown colony in Virginia, instrumental in the early years of the settlement and known for his leadership and mapping of the area.
Powhatan-Native American leader of the Powhatan Confederacy, who interacted with English settlers at Jamestown and played a crucial role in the early relations between Native Americans and colonists.
Pocahontas-Native American woman of the Powhatan tribe, known for her association with the Jamestown colony and her role in mediating between her people and the English settlers, ultimately marrying John Rolfe.
John Rolfe-English settler in Jamestown, known for introducing tobacco cultivation to the colony, which became a profitable cash crop and significantly contributed to the economic stability of the settlement.
John Winthrop-First governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, he is best known for his role in establishing the colony as a Puritan utopia and delivering the famous "City upon a Hill" sermon, which emphasized the community's moral responsibility.
Roger Williams-Founder of Rhode Island, he was an advocate for religious freedom and the separation of church and state, establishing a colony that welcomed diverse beliefs.
Anne Hutchinson-A prominent figure in the early colonial period, she challenged the religious authorities in Massachusetts Bay by promoting her interpretations of the Bible and advocating for women's roles in religion, ultimately leading to her banishment from the colony.
Quakers-A religious group that emerged in the mid-17th century, known for their belief in inner light, pacifism, and egalitarian principles, they faced persecution in both England and the American colonies, leading to the establishment of Pennsylvania as a safe haven under William Penn.
Nathaniel Bacon-A colonial planter and leader of Bacon's Rebellion in 1676, he opposed the Virginia governor's policies on Native American land and sought to address the grievances of frontier settlers, ultimately leading to a conflict that highlighted tensions between different social classes in the colony.
William Berkeley-The governor of Virginia during Bacon's Rebellion, he was criticized for his friendly policies towards Native Americans and for failing to protect the interests of frontier settlers, which fueled discontent that ultimately led to the uprising.
Jonathan Edwards-A prominent preacher during the First Great Awakening, known for his fire-and-brimstone sermons that emphasized personal conversion and the importance of a heartfelt relationship with God, he played a crucial role in revitalizing religious fervor in colonial America.
George Whitefield-An influential preacher during the First Great Awakening, he was known for his charismatic oratory and ability to draw large crowds, promoting a more emotional and personal approach to religion that helped spread evangelicalism throughout the colonies.
Robert Walpole-The first de facto Prime Minister of Great Britain, he played a significant role in shaping early 18th-century British politics, promoting a policy of peace and economic stability while managing patronage effectively.
William Pitt-A prominent British statesman known for his leadership during the Seven Years' War, he advocated for increased military spending and expansion of the British Empire, which ultimately transformed Britain's global influence.
Charles Townshend-A British politician and statesman, he is best known for his role in the Townshend Acts, which imposed duties on imported goods, leading to increased tensions between Britain and the American colonies.
Lord North-The Prime Minister of Great Britain during much of the American Revolutionary War, he is often criticized for his policies that alienated the colonies and for his inability to effectively manage the conflict.
Ben Franklin-A Founding Father and a key diplomat, he played a crucial role in securing French support during the American Revolution and was instrumental in drafting the Declaration of Independence.
James Otis-An early advocate for colonial rights, he is known for his opposition to the Writs of Assistance and his famous phrase, "Taxation without representation is tyranny."
John Dickinson-A prominent politician and lawyer, he is best known for his Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, which argued against British taxation and helped unify colonial resistance.
George Washington-The first President of the United States and a commanding general during the American Revolutionary War, he is revered for his leadership in the founding of the nation and for setting many precedents for the presidency.
Thomas Jefferson-The principal author of the Declaration of Independence, he served as the third President of the United States and is known for his advocacy of individual liberties and the separation of church and state.
John Adams-The second President of the United States, he played a crucial role in the American Revolution and was a key advocate for independence, as well as a strong proponent of a strong federal government.
Samuel Adams-A prominent leader in the American Revolution, he was instrumental in organizing resistance against British policies and is often referred to as the "Father of the American Revolution."
Sons of Liberty-A secret society formed to oppose British taxation and policies, they played a significant role in organizing protests, including the Boston Tea Party.
Thomas Paine-An influential political writer whose pamphlet "Common Sense" rallied public support for independence and challenged the authority of the British government.
George III-King of Great Britain during the American Revolution, he was perceived as a tyrant by the colonists and his policies were a major factor in the push for independence.
Abigail Adams-An early advocate for women's rights, she is best known for her letters to her husband John Adams, in which she urged him to "remember the ladies" when formulating new laws.
Mercy Otis Warren - A political writer and playwright who used her work to promote the cause of independence and criticize British rule, she played a significant role in shaping public opinion during the Revolutionary period.
Lord Cornwallis- British Army officer and colonial administrator, he is best known for his leadership during the American Revolutionary War and his surrender at the Siege of Yorktown, which effectively ended the conflict.
Loyalists-Colonists who remained loyal to the British Crown during the American Revolutionary War, they opposed the revolution and often faced persecution from Patriot forces.
Events
Repartimiento-a labor system that allowed Spanish colonists to extract forced labor from indigenous people in the Americas, which was a significant aspect of colonial exploitation.
Jamestown-the first permanent English settlement in North America, established in 1607, which played a crucial role in the early development of the United States.
Virginia House of Burgesses-the first elected legislative assembly in the New World, established in 1619, which marked the beginning of representative government in colonial America.
“Brown Gold” - tobacco-a cash crop that became the foundation of the Virginia economy, driving the demand for labor and leading to the expansion of slavery in the region.
Headright System-a land grant policy that encouraged settlement in Virginia by giving 50 acres of land to each settler who paid for their own or another's passage, promoting the growth of plantations and the reliance on indentured servants.
Plymouth Colony-the second permanent English settlement in North America, founded in 1620 by Pilgrims seeking religious freedom, which established a framework for self-governance with the Mayflower Compact.
Mayflower Compact-an agreement made by the Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower that established a basic form of democracy, allowing male settlers to vote on laws for the colony.
Massachusetts Bay Colony- the first major settlement in New England, established in 1630 by Puritans seeking religious freedom and economic opportunity, known for its strong emphasis on community and moral governance.
Salem WItch Trials-a series of hearings and prosecutions that took place in 1692 in Salem, Massachusetts, where several people were accused of witchcraft, leading to widespread hysteria and the execution of 20 individuals.
Half-Way Covenant-a form of partial church membership created by New England Puritans in 1662, allowing the children of baptized but unconverted church members to be baptized and thus have a form of access to the church, reflecting the changing religious landscape of the time.
Bacon’s Rebellion-an uprising in 1676 led by Nathaniel Bacon against the rule of Governor William Berkeley in Virginia, fueled by frustrations over government corruption, lack of protection from Native American attacks, and the desire for land, marking a significant moment in colonial resistance and highlighting the growing tensions between frontier settlers and the colonial elite.
African Slave Trade-the forced transportation of millions of Africans to the Americas from the 16th to the 19th centuries, driven by the demand for labor in plantations and mines, which had profound economic, social, and cultural impacts on both Africa and the New World.
King Philip's War-a conflict between New England colonists and Native American tribes led by Metacom, also known as King Philip, from 1675 to 1676, which resulted in significant casualties on both sides and marked a turning point in the relationship between Native Americans and European settlers, ultimately leading to the decline of Native American power in the region.
Dominion of New England-a short-lived administrative union of English colonies in the New England region, established in 1686 by King James II, aimed at consolidating control and increasing efficiency in governance, but faced strong opposition from colonists and was ultimately dissolved in 1689 following the Glorious Revolution.
New England Town Meetings-local gatherings where colonists would discuss and vote on community issues, reflecting the early development of democratic practices in colonial America and allowing for greater participation in governance.
Navigation Acts-a series of laws enacted by the British Parliament in the 1650s aimed at regulating colonial trade and enabling England to collect taxes from the colonies, which restricted colonial trade to English ships and required certain goods to be exported only to England.
Zenger Trial-a landmark case in 1735 involving John Peter Zenger, a New York printer, who was accused of libel against the colonial governor. The trial established the precedent for freedom of the press in America, as Zenger's defense argued that truthful statements about public officials should not be punishable as libel.
Great Awakening-a religious revival movement in the 1730s and 1740s that emphasized personal faith, emotional experiences, and a direct relationship with God, leading to increased religious diversity and the questioning of traditional authority in colonial America.
Albany Plan of Union-a proposal developed by Benjamin Franklin in 1754 aimed at uniting the colonies for mutual defense against French and Native American threats, which suggested the creation of a centralized government with representatives from each colony.
French and Indian War-a conflict from 1754 to 1763 between Britain and France in North America, which was part of the larger Seven Years' War, resulting in significant territorial gains for Britain but also increased tensions with the American colonies due to the financial burdens imposed by the war.
Treaty of Paris 1763-a significant agreement that ended the French and Indian War, where France ceded most of its North American territories to Britain, reshaping the geopolitical landscape and laying the groundwork for future colonial discontent.
Writs of Assistance-legal documents that served as general search warrants, allowing British officials to search any location for smuggled goods without specific cause, which fueled resentment among colonists and contributed to the growing desire for independence.
Proclamation of 1763-a decree issued by King George III that prohibited colonial settlement west of the Appalachian Mountains, intended to stabilize relations with Native Americans but ultimately angered colonists who sought to expand westward.
Sugar Act-a law enacted in 1764 that aimed to raise revenue by imposing duties on sugar and molasses imported into the colonies, further straining the relationship between Britain and its American colonies, as it was seen as an infringement on their economic freedom.
Committees of Correspondence-a network of communication established in the 1760s that allowed for the rapid exchange of information and coordinated responses to British policies, fostering unity among the colonies and laying the groundwork for collective action against British rule.
Stamp Act-a 1765 law that required colonists to purchase special stamped paper for legal documents, newspapers, and other publications, leading to widespread protests and the formation of the Sons of Liberty, as it was viewed as a direct tax without colonial representation.
Stamp Act Congress-a gathering of representatives from nine colonies in 1765 that convened to protest the Stamp Act, asserting that only colonial legislatures had the authority to tax the colonies and marking a significant step toward organized resistance against British taxation.
Declaratory Act-a 1766 law passed by the British Parliament that asserted its right to legislate for the colonies "in all cases whatsoever," effectively nullifying the claims of the colonies to self-governance and escalating tensions between Britain and its American colonies.
Townshend Duties-a series of laws enacted in 1767 that imposed duties on imported goods such as glass, paper, paint, and tea, leading to further unrest and boycotts among the colonists who viewed these measures as another example of taxation without representation.
Boston Massacre-an incident on March 5, 1770, where British soldiers killed five colonists during a confrontation, which fueled anti-British sentiments and was utilized as a propaganda tool by revolutionary leaders like Paul Revere and Samuel Adams.
Gaspee Incident-a 1772 event where colonists boarded and burned the British customs schooner Gaspee, which had been enforcing unpopular trade regulations, highlighting the growing resistance against British authority.
Boston Tea Party-a pivotal act of defiance on December 16, 1773, where American colonists, frustrated by British taxation without representation, dumped 342 chests of tea into Boston Harbor as a protest against the Tea Act, escalating tensions between Britain and the colonies.
Intolerable/Coercive Acts-a series of punitive measures enacted by the British Parliament in 1774 in response to the Boston Tea Party, which included the closing of Boston Harbor and the revocation of Massachusetts' charter, further uniting the colonies against British oppression.
1st Continental Congress-convened in September 1774 as a gathering of colonial delegates to address colonial grievances, resulting in the formation of the Continental Association to enforce a boycott of British goods and laying the groundwork for future resistance.
Petition of Grievances-a formal request presented to King George III by the First Continental Congress, outlining the colonies' concerns regarding British policies and seeking redress for their grievances, ultimately aiming to restore their rights and autonomy.
2nd Continental Congress-convened in May 1775, following the outbreak of hostilities at Lexington and Concord, and was responsible for managing the colonial war effort, appointing George Washington as commander of the Continental Army, and ultimately adopting the Declaration of Independence in 1776.
Olive Branch Petition-a final attempt by the Second Continental Congress in July 1775 to avoid a full-scale war with Great Britain, expressing loyalty to the Crown while requesting a peaceful resolution to the ongoing conflict.
Common Sense-a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in January 1776 that argued for independence from Britain, challenging the authority of the British government and promoting the idea of republicanism as a more just and equitable form of governance.
Declaration of Independence-a document adopted on July 4, 1776, that proclaimed the thirteen American colonies as independent states, free from British rule, and outlined the philosophical principles of individual rights and government by consent.
Lexington and Concord-the first military engagements of the American Revolutionary War, occurring on April 19, 1775, where colonial militia confronted British troops, marking the start of armed conflict between Britain and its American colonies.
American Revolution-a conflict from 1775 to 1783 in which the thirteen American colonies fought for their independence from British rule, resulting in the establishment of the United States of America and the recognition of its sovereignty through the Treaty of Paris.
Battle of Boston-a series of military engagements in 1775 that included the Siege of Boston, where colonial forces surrounded and besieged British troops, ultimately leading to the British evacuation of the city in March 1776.
Battle of NYC-a significant battle fought in 1776, where British forces aimed to capture New York City from the Continental Army, resulting in a decisive British victory and forcing General Washington to retreat.
Battle of Saratoga-a pivotal battle in 1777 that marked a turning point in the American Revolution, as American forces secured a decisive victory over the British, leading to increased French support for the American cause.
Yorktown-the final major battle of the American Revolutionary War, fought in 1781, where American and French forces besieged British General Cornwallis, leading to his surrender and effectively ending major combat operations.
Treaty of Paris 1783-the agreement that officially ended the American Revolutionary War, recognizing the independence of the United States and establishing borders for the new nation.
Articles of Confederation to Constitution (1783-1789)
Concepts
Articles of Confederation-the first governing document of the United States, which created a weak federal government and ultimately led to its replacement due to inefficiencies.
Critical Period-the time frame following the American Revolution when the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation became apparent, prompting calls for a stronger central government.
U.S. Constitution-the foundational document of the United States that established the framework for the federal government, including the separation of powers and checks and balances.
Representative Democracy-a system of government in which officials are elected to represent the interests of the people, ensuring that citizens have a voice in the decision-making process.
Federalism-a system of governance where power is divided between a central authority and regional entities, allowing for both national and state-level decision-making.
Separation of Powers-the division of government responsibilities into distinct branches to prevent any one branch from exercising the core functions of another, typically categorized into the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
Special powers of the Senate and House-the unique authorities granted to each chamber of Congress, such as the Senate's role in ratifying treaties and confirming presidential appointments, while the House holds the power to initiate revenue bills and impeach federal officials.
Roles of the President-the President serves as the head of state and government, responsible for implementing and enforcing federal laws, conducting foreign policy, acting as commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and overseeing the executive branch of government.
Checks and Balances-the system that ensures that no one branch of government becomes too powerful by providing each branch with the ability to limit the powers of the others, thereby maintaining a balance of power among the legislative, executive, and judicial branches.
Flexibility of the Constitution-the ability of the Constitution to adapt to changing circumstances and societal needs, allowing for amendments and interpretations that reflect contemporary values and issues.
Elastic Clause-the provision in the Constitution that grants Congress the authority to pass all laws necessary and proper for carrying out its enumerated powers, thereby enabling the federal government to adapt to new challenges and responsibilities.
Judicial Review-the power of the courts to assess whether a law is in compliance with the Constitution, allowing the judiciary to invalidate laws and executive actions that are deemed unconstitutional.
Protection of Individual Rights-the safeguards enshrined in the Bill of Rights, which ensure that personal freedoms such as speech, religion, and assembly are upheld against government infringement.
Unwritten Constitution-the set of practices and precedents that have developed over time to guide the operation of government, despite not being explicitly outlined in the Constitution itself.
Ratification Debate-the contentious discussions surrounding the approval of the Constitution, where Federalists advocated for a strong central government while Anti-Federalists feared the potential for tyranny and the erosion of states' rights.
Ratification Process-the series of steps required for the Constitution to be formally adopted, which included state conventions and the eventual need for nine states to ratify before it could take effect.
Loose vs. Strict interpretation of the Constitution-the debate between those who believe in a flexible reading that allows for implied powers and those who argue for a literal interpretation that limits federal authority to only what is explicitly stated in the document.
People/Groups
Daniel Shay-a farmer and former soldier who led Shays' Rebellion in 1786, protesting against economic injustices and the lack of government response to the financial difficulties faced by farmers.
John Jay-an influential Founding Father, co-author of the Federalist Papers, and the first Chief Justice of the United States, who advocated for a strong central government and played a key role in the ratification of the Constitution.
Alexander Hamilton-a prominent statesman and one of the Founding Fathers, who served as the first Secretary of the Treasury, advocating for a robust financial system and federal assumption of state debts.
James Madison-a key architect of the Constitution and the Bill of Rights, who served as the fourth President of the United States and was instrumental in the establishment of the Democratic-Republican Party.
Robert Yates-a delegate to the Constitutional Convention who opposed the Constitution's ratification and later became a prominent Anti-Federalist, advocating for individual liberties and state sovereignty.
George Mason-a Founding Father and influential political leader known for his strong advocacy of individual rights and his role in drafting the Virginia Declaration of Rights, which served as a model for the U.S. Bill of Rights.
Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists-opponents of the Constitution who feared that a strong central government would threaten individual liberties and state rights, advocating for a Bill of Rights to safeguard personal freedoms.
Events
Land Ordinance 1784 & 1785-established a system for surveying and selling western lands, facilitating westward expansion and providing a method for new states to join the Union.
Northwest Ordinance 1787-established a framework for governing the Northwest Territory, promoting orderly settlement, and ensuring the rights of settlers while prohibiting slavery in the region.
Problems with the British (trade and forts)-led to heightened tensions and conflicts in the post-Revolutionary War period, as American merchants faced restrictions on trade and the British maintained military forts in the Northwest Territory.
Problems with the Spanish-created additional challenges for the young nation, particularly regarding navigation rights on the Mississippi River and territorial disputes in Florida, which hindered economic growth and expansion.
Barbary Pirates-a group of North African pirates who captured American ships and held sailors for ransom, prompting the United States to address maritime security and foreign policy challenges in the early 19th century.
Currency problems-the lack of a stable national currency led to inflation and economic instability, making it difficult for the government to pay debts and for citizens to conduct business effectively.
Shay’s Rebellion-a series of protests led by farmers in 1786-1787 against state and local enforcement of tax collections and judgments for debt, highlighting the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and the need for a stronger federal government.
Mount Vernon Convention-a meeting held in 1785 to discuss issues related to trade and navigation on the Potomac River, which ultimately led to the Constitutional Convention.
Annapolis Convention-A meeting held in 1786 to discuss the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, which ultimately led to the Constitutional Convention.
Constitutional Convention-A gathering that took place in Philadelphia in 1787 to address the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation and to draft the United States Constitution.
Great Compromise-A pivotal agreement reached during the Constitutional Convention that established a bicameral legislature, balancing representation between populous and smaller states.
3/5th Compromise-An agreement reached during the Constitutional Convention that determined how slaves would be counted for representation and taxation purposes, allowing states to count three-fifths of their slave population.
Electoral Compromise-A solution that determined how slaves would be counted for representation and taxation purposes, allowing each slave to be counted as three-fifths of a person.
Commerce Compromise-An agreement during the Constitutional Convention that allowed Congress to regulate interstate and foreign commerce while prohibiting any taxes on exports.
Federalist Papers-A series of 85 articles and essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay advocating for the ratification of the United States Constitution.
Anti-Federalist Papers-A series of essays written to oppose the ratification of the U.S. Constitution, emphasizing the need for a Bill of Rights and greater protection of individual liberties.
Bill of Rights-The first ten amendments to the United States Constitution, which guarantee individual rights and liberties.
Ratification of Constitution-the process by which the Constitution was formally approved by the states, requiring nine out of thirteen states to agree for it to take effect.
Early American Development (1789-1815)
Concepts
Development of Political Parties-the emergence of the Federalist and Democratic-Republican parties, which arose from differing views on government power and the role of the federal versus state governments.
Neutrality -the policy adopted by the United States to avoid involvement in foreign conflicts, particularly during the wars in Europe.
Isolationism-the policy of avoiding involvement in international affairs or alliances, particularly during the early years of the United States.
Establishing Precedents-the early actions taken by the United States in foreign affairs set important guidelines for future policies and interactions with other nations.
Development of Political Parties (Federalists vs Dem-Republicans)-these parties emerged in response to differing views on the role of federal government, economic policy, and foreign relations, with Federalists advocating for a strong central government and Dem-Republicans promoting states' rights.
Federal supremacy vs states rights-the ongoing debate that shaped the early political landscape, influencing the balance of power between the national government and individual states.
Addressing Financial Concerns-the federal government implemented policies such as the creation of a national bank and the assumption of state debts to stabilize the economy.
Impact of French Revolution-the U.S. experienced increased political polarization, as Federalists supported Britain and the Dem-Republicans sympathized with France, leading to significant debates over foreign policy and national identity.
Foreign Policy Dilemmas with Europe-the United States faced challenges in navigating relationships with powerful nations such as Britain and France, leading to debates over neutrality and alliances.
Jeffersonian Democracy-a political philosophy that emphasized agrarianism, states' rights, and the belief in the common man's ability to govern.
Revolution of 1800-this election marked a significant shift in power from the Federalists to the Democratic-Republicans, showcasing the effectiveness of the electoral process and the peaceful transition of power.
People/Groups
George Washington-First president of the United States, set important precedents for future leaders.
Thomas Jefferson-Third president of the United States and key author of the Declaration of Independence.
Alexander Hamilton-First Secretary of the Treasury and a key architect of the financial system of the United States.
John Jay-First Chief Justice of the United States and a key negotiator of the Treaty of Paris.
Thomas Pickney-American diplomat and one of the authors of the Federalist Papers.
John Adams-Second president of the United States and a key figure in the American Revolution.
John Marshall-Fourth chief justice of the United States, known for establishing the principle of judicial review.
Aaron Burr-Vice President under Thomas Jefferson and notable for his duel with Alexander Hamilton.
James Madison-Fourth president of the United States, known for his role in drafting the Constitution and the Bill of Rights.
Hawks vs. Doves-a term used to describe those who preferred diplomacy and negotiation over military action, especially in the context of the War of 1812.
Tecumseh and the Profit-t: Native American leader who sought to unite tribes against American expansion.
Events
Hamilton’s Financial Plan-a series of measures proposed by Alexander Hamilton to stabilize the American economy, which included the federal assumption of state debts, the establishment of a national bank, and the implementation of tariffs to protect budding American industries.
National Bank-A central institution proposed by Hamilton to stabilize and improve the nation's credit, facilitating government borrowing and managing the nation's finances.
Assumption of Debt Plan-the federal government would assume state debts incurred during the Revolutionary War, thus centralizing financial responsibility and boosting national credit.
Whiskey Rebellion-a violent tax protest in 1794 against the federal excise tax on whiskey, which was seen as unfair by western farmers.
French Revolution-A period of political upheaval in France that had significant effects on global politics and inspired revolutionary movements in America.
Proclamation of Neutrality-A declaration issued by President George Washington in 1793, stating that the United States would remain neutral in the conflict between France and Great Britain.
Jay Treaty-An agreement between the United States and Great Britain that resolved issues remaining since the Revolutionary War and facilitated ten years of peaceful trade.
Pinckney Treaty-An agreement between the United States and Spain, signed in 1795, which granted the U.S. navigation rights on the Mississippi River and defined the borders between the two nations.
Washington’s Farewell Address-warned against the dangers of political parties and foreign alliances, emphasizing the importance of national unity and independence.
Treaty of Greenville-Agreement between the United States and various Native American tribes that established a boundary line between their lands and American settlements in 1795.
XYZ Affair-An incident in 1797 where American diplomats were approached by French agents demanding bribes before negotiations could begin, leading to an undeclared naval conflict between the United States and France.
Undeclared Naval War with France-a conflict that arose from tensions between the United States and France, resulting in naval engagements but no formal declaration of war.
Alien and Sedition Acts-Laws passed in 1798 that aimed to restrict immigration and limit free speech, targeting political opponents of the Federalist Party.
Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions-a set of political statements drafted in 1798 and 1799, asserting that states could nullify federal laws they deemed unconstitutional.
Violations of Treaty of Paris-led to increased tensions between the United States and France, ultimately resulting in the Quasi-War, where American and French naval forces clashed at sea.
Napoleonic Wars-A series of conflicts involving Napoleon's French Empire against various coalitions, significantly impacting American foreign policy and trade.
Revolution of 1800-a significant political shift where Thomas Jefferson's election marked the first peaceful transfer of power between political parties in the United States.
12th Amendment-Ratified in 1804, this amendment established the electoral process for the President and Vice President, ensuring that they would be elected on separate ballots.
Judiciary Act of 1789-Established the federal judiciary system, creating a Supreme Court and lower federal courts.
Judiciary Act of 1801-This act reorganized the federal judiciary and allowed President John Adams to appoint several new judges, often referred to as "midnight judges," before leaving office.
Midnight Appointments-a series of last-minute judicial appointments made by President John Adams before leaving office, aimed at filling the federal judiciary with Federalist judges.
Marbury vs. Madison-landmark Supreme Court case that established the principle of judicial review, allowing the Court to invalidate laws that it finds unconstitutional.
Mosquito Fleet-a term used to describe the small, fast naval vessels that were utilized by the United States during the early 19th century, particularly for coastal defense and patrol.
Louisiana Purchase-Acquisition of the territory from France in 1803, which doubled the size of the United States and opened up the West for exploration and settlement.
Napoleonic Wars-A series of conflicts involving Napoleon's French Empire and various coalitions of European nations that significantly impacted American foreign policy and trade.
Embargo Act-A law passed in 1807 that prohibited American ships from trading in foreign ports, aimed at protecting American interests but ultimately harming the economy.
Non-Intercourse Act-Replaced the Embargo Act, allowing trade with all nations except Britain and France.
Macon’s Bill #2-Aimed to motivate Britain and France to respect American neutrality by lifting restrictions on trade with either nation, contingent on their recognition of U.S. rights.
War of 1812-A conflict between the United States and Great Britain that resulted from trade restrictions, impressment of American sailors, and territorial expansion efforts.
Battle of Tippecanoe-A key conflict between American forces led by Governor William Henry Harrison and Native American warriors associated with Shawnee leader Tecumseh, which occurred in 1811 and heightened tensions leading to the War of 1812.
Indian Confederacy-a coalition of Native American tribes formed to resist American expansion into their territories, notably led by Tecumseh.
Hartford Convention-a series of meetings held in 1814-1815 by the New England Federalist Party to discuss their grievances concerning the War of 1812 and the increasing power of the federal government.
Treaty of Ghent-A peace treaty that ended the War of 1812 between the United States and Great Britain, restoring pre-war boundaries but failing to address the issues that led to the conflict.
Battle of New Orleans-A significant battle fought on January 8, 1815, which took place after the Treaty of Ghent was signed, resulting in a decisive American victory against the British.
Era of Good Feelings (1816-1850)
Concepts
Era of Good Feelings-a period characterized by national unity, economic prosperity, and the absence of major political conflicts following the War of 1812.
Development of national identity-this period saw an increase in American nationalism, characterized by a sense of unity and pride in the nation following the War of 1812.
Market Revolution-a period of rapid economic growth and change in the United States during the early 19th century, characterized by the expansion of markets and the shift from agrarian to industrial economies.
Development of canals and roads-led to increased trade and communication, facilitating the movement of goods and people across the expanding nation.
Impact of Marshall Court Cases-these cases helped to strengthen the power of the federal government and establish a precedent for federal authority over states, influencing the economic and political landscape of the nation.
Manifest Destiny-the belief that the expansion of the United States across the American continents was both justified and inevitable, leading to significant territorial growth and cultural change.
Jacksonian Democracy-a political movement that championed greater rights for the common man and expanded suffrage, reflecting the values and beliefs of the era.
“Rise of Common Man”-the idea that ordinary citizens should have increased political power and influence, which was a key component of Jacksonian Democracy.
Jackson and Veto - “King Andrew”-his use of the veto power exemplified his belief in a strong presidency, often overriding Congress to implement his vision.
Abolitionism-the movement to end slavery, gained momentum during this period, driven by figures such as Frederick Douglass and Sojourner Truth who advocated for equal rights and the emancipation of enslaved individuals.
Women’s RIghts-the Seneca Falls Convention of 1848 marked a significant turning point in the fight for gender equality, highlighting issues such as suffrage and property rights.
Religious Awakenings-These movements played a significant role in shaping social reform and energizing various groups, including abolitionists and women's rights activists.
Social Reform Movements-These movements aimed to address various societal issues, including education reform, temperance, and labor rights, reflecting a growing desire for change in American society.
Transcendentalism-A philosophical movement that emerged in the early 19th century, emphasizing individual intuition and the inherent goodness of people and nature.
Utopian Societies-Communities that sought to create a perfect society through shared values and cooperative living, often inspired by religious or philosophical ideals.
Market Revolution-a period of rapid economic growth and technological innovation in the early 19th century that transformed the production and distribution of goods.
Factory System-A method of manufacturing that began in the late 18th century, characterized by the concentration of production in large factories, where labor was divided and specialized.
Stagnant South-a region that struggled economically due to its reliance on agriculture and slavery, which limited industrial growth compared to the North.
Indian Removal Policy-a series of laws and actions taken by the U.S. government in the 1830s aimed at relocating Native American tribes from their ancestral lands in the Southeast to designated territories west of the Mississippi River.
Nationalism-a sense of pride and loyalty to one's nation, which fueled expansionist policies and the idea of Manifest Destiny in the 19th century.
Sectionalism -A growing divide between the North and South, influenced by economic differences and cultural values.
Tariff Controversy-The debate over tariffs was a significant factor in the rise of sectional tensions, as the North supported high tariffs to protect their manufacturing interests, while the South opposed them, fearing economic repercussions on their agricultural exports.
“54’40” or fight”-a slogan used during the Oregon boundary dispute between the United States and Britain, reflecting the intense nationalism and desire for westward expansion in the 1840s.
Growth of slavery-the expansion of cotton plantations in the South significantly increased the demand for enslaved labor, leading to heightened tensions between slave and free states.
Western expansion of slavery-the desire for new land and resources led to increased demand for slave labor in newly acquired territories, raising significant moral and political debates in the United States.
Development of RR-ailroads facilitated the movement of enslaved people into new territories, further entrenching the institution of slavery in the expanding United States.
People/Groups
James Monroe-5th president of the United States, known for the Monroe Doctrine which asserted American influence in the Western Hemisphere.
John Quincy Adams-Sixth president of the United States and key proponent of the American System, which aimed to strengthen the nation's infrastructure.
Andrew Jackson-Seventh president of the United States and a key figure in the founding of the Democratic Party.
Jacksonian Democrats-a political party formed by supporters of Andrew Jackson, advocating for the rights of the 'common man' and promoting policies such as westward expansion and opposition to the national bank.
Nicholas Biddle-President of the Second Bank of the United States, known for his conflict with President Andrew Jackson over the bank's recharter.
Martin VanBuren-Eighth president of the United States and key ally of Andrew Jackson, known for his role in the formation of the Democratic Party.
William Harrison-Ninth president of the United States, known for his brief term and the longest inaugural address.
John Tyler-10th president of the United States, who assumed office after Harrison's death in 1841.
Henry Clay-A prominent politician and statesman, known for his role in the development of the American System.
Whigs-A political party active in the mid-19th century, the Whigs opposed the policies of President Andrew Jackson and favored a strong legislative branch.
Daniel Webster-Key figure in the Whig Party and served as Secretary of State under multiple presidents.
John C. Calhoun-a prominent political figure who served as vice president and was a strong advocate for states' rights.
James K. Polk-11th president of the United States, known for his expansionist policies and the acquisition of territories such as California and Oregon.
Dorothea Dix-Advocate for mental health reform and the establishment of asylums for the mentally ill.
Susan B. Anthony-Leader in the women's suffrage movement and co-organizer of the Seneca Falls Convention.
Lucretia Mott-Leading abolitionist and women's rights activist, co-organizer of the Seneca Falls Convention.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton-Leading figure in the women's rights movement, co-organizer of the Seneca Falls Convention.
Frederick Douglass-prominent abolitionist and social reformer who advocated for the rights of African Americans and women's suffrage.
Harriet Tubman-A prominent abolitionist and political activist, known for her role in the Underground Railroad, helping enslaved people escape to freedom.
William Lloyd Garrison-An influential abolitionist and journalist, known for his fiery rhetoric and as the founder of the anti-slavery newspaper "The Liberator."
Sojourner Truth-an abolitionist and women's rights activist known for her powerful speeches, including "Ain't I a Woman?"
Elijah Lovejoy-A journalist and abolitionist who was murdered for his anti-slavery beliefs.
Grimke Sisters-prominent abolitionists and women's rights advocates who played a crucial role in the anti-slavery movement.
John Brown-An abolitionist who believed in armed insurrection to overthrow the institution of slavery.
Nat Turner-Leader of a slave rebellion in Virginia in 1831, which resulted in the deaths of many individuals and heightened tensions over slavery.
Horace Mann-an education reformer who advocated for public schooling and improved educational opportunities for all children.
Thomas Galladuet-Advocate for the education of the deaf and established the first school for the deaf in the United States.
Herman Melville-American novelist and poet, best known for his work "Moby-Dick."
James Fenimore Cooper-First American novelist to gain international fame, known for his frontier themes and the Leatherstocking Tales.
Nathanial Hawthorne-Author known for his dark romanticism and works such as "The Scarlet Letter" and "The House of the Seven Gables."
Edgar Allen Poe-Renowned for his poetry and macabre short stories, he is often considered a master of the Gothic genre.
Walt Witman-American poet known for his collection "Leaves of Grass" which celebrates democracy and individualism.
Washington Irving-American author known for his short stories such as "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow" and "Rip Van Winkle."
Thomas Cole - Founder of the Hudson River School, known for landscape paintings that depict the American wilderness.
Hudson River School of Painting-A mid-19th century American art movement known for its romantic depictions of the landscape of the Hudson River Valley and surrounding areas, emphasizing nature's beauty and the sublime.
Henry David Thoreau-a transcendentalist writer known for his work "Walden," which reflects on simple living in natural surroundings.
Ralph Waldo Emerson-Transcendentalist philosopher and writer, known for his essays on individualism and nature.
Alexis de Tocqueville-French political thinker known for his observations on American society and democracy in his work "Democracy in America."
Charles Finney-A prominent preacher during the Second Great Awakening who advocated for social reforms and emphasized personal conversion.
Mother Anne Lee-Founder of the Shaker movement, emphasizing communal living and celibacy.
William Miller-Founder of the Millerite movement, which predicted the Second Coming of Christ in the 1840s.
Joseph Smith-Founder of the Latter Day Saint movement, also known as Mormonism, and author of the Book of Mormon.
Bringham Young-Leader of the Mormon Church after Joseph Smith's death, he played a crucial role in the westward expansion of the church.
Fox Sisters-The Fox Sisters were key figures in the Spiritualist movement, known for their role in popularizing the belief in communication with the dead through seances.
Liberty Party-A political party in the United States that was active in the 1840s, primarily focused on the abolition of slavery and promoting individual liberties.
Free Soil Party-A political party formed in the 1840s that opposed the expansion of slavery into the western territories.
Know Nothing Party-A political party that emerged in the 1850s, known for its anti-immigrant and anti-Catholic sentiments, which aimed to restrict immigration and promote nativism.
Events
Monroe’s Grand Tour-a diplomatic journey undertaken by President James Monroe in 1823 to strengthen international relations and assert American influence in the Western Hemisphere.
Marshall Court Cases-key decisions that established the principles of federalism and the power of the Supreme Court, including Marbury v. Madison and McCulloch v. Maryland.
McCulloch vs Maryland-Established the principle of national supremacy by affirming the federal government's implied powers over state laws.
Gibbons vs Ogden-a landmark Supreme Court case that established federal authority over interstate commerce, reinforcing the power of the federal government to regulate trade between states.
Fletcher vs Peck-Established the principle that state laws cannot invalidate contracts, reinforcing the sanctity of contracts in U.S. law.
Dartmouth College vs Woodward-A landmark case that established the principle of sanctity of contracts, preventing states from interfering with private charters.
Cohens vs Virginia-A landmark case that established the principle of judicial review at the state level, affirming the Supreme Court's authority to review state court decisions.
Erie Canal-A significant engineering project completed in 1825 that linked the Hudson River with Lake Erie, facilitating trade and transportation in New York and the Midwest.
American System-a set of economic policies proposed by Henry Clay to promote national growth through internal improvements, a protective tariff, and a national bank.
Native American Wars/Treaties-The series of conflicts and agreements between Native American tribes and the United States government that shaped the expansion and settlement of the western territories.
Second Great Awakening-A religious revival movement in the early 19th century that emphasized individual piety and social reform.
Seneca Falls Convention-First women's rights convention held in 1848, which marked the beginning of the women's suffrage movement in the United States.
Rush-Bagot Agreement-An 1817 treaty between the United States and Great Britain that limited naval armaments on the Great Lakes and established the border between the U.S. and Canada.
Treaty Line of 1818-Established the boundary between the United States and Canada at the 49th parallel, allowing for joint occupation of the Oregon Territory.
Adams-Onis Treaty-A 1819 agreement between the United States and Spain that ceded Florida to the U.S. and defined the boundary between the two nations.
Panic of 1819-a financial crisis that resulted in widespread economic hardship and bank failures, leading to increased public discontent and a shift in political sentiments.
Missouri Compromise-An agreement passed in 1820 that allowed Missouri to enter the Union as a slave state while Maine entered as a free state, maintaining the balance of power between slave and free states.
Monroe Doctrine-A key foreign policy statement issued in 1823 that declared the Americas off-limits to further European colonization and interference.
Election of 1824-A contentious election marked by a lack of majority winner, leading to a 'corrupt bargain' between John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay.
Corrupt Bargain-a term used to describe the alleged deal made between John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay that resulted in Adams winning the presidency despite losing the popular vote.
Spoils System-a practice in which political parties reward their supporters with government jobs after winning an election.
Kitchen Cabinet-an informal group of advisors that President Andrew Jackson consulted, often in place of his official cabinet members.
Tariff of Abominations-A controversial tariff enacted in 1828 that raised duties on imported goods, leading to significant opposition from southern states.
South Carolina Exposition and Protest-a document written by John C. Calhoun in 1828 that argued against the Tariff of Abominations, promoting the idea of states' rights and nullification.
Nullification Crisis-a political confrontation between South Carolina and the federal government during the early 1830s, sparked by the state's opposition to the Tariff of 1828.
Force Bill-A legislative measure passed by Congress in 1833 that authorized President Andrew Jackson to use military force to ensure compliance with federal tariffs.
Compromise of 1833-a resolution to the Nullification Crisis that reduced tariffs and appeased Southern states while preserving the Union.
War on the National Bank-President Andrew Jackson's opposition to the Second Bank of the United States, which he viewed as a tool of the elite, led to a significant political struggle and the eventual dismantling of the bank.
Specie Circular-an executive order issued by President Andrew Jackson in 1836, requiring payment for government land to be made in gold or silver, which ultimately contributed to the financial panic of 1837.
Panic of 1837-a financial crisis triggered by the collapse of the cotton market, leading to widespread bank failures and economic depression.
Independent Treasury Act-A law passed in 1840 that established a system of managing the government's funds independently from the national banking system.
Indian Removal Act 1830-a law that authorized the forced removal of Native American tribes from their ancestral lands in the southeastern United States to designated "Indian Territory" west of the Mississippi River.
Trail of Tears-The forced relocation of the Cherokee Nation and other tribes from their ancestral homelands to designated Indian Territory, resulting in significant suffering and loss of life.
Cherokee Nation vs Georgia-This landmark Supreme Court case in 1831 addressed the status of the Cherokee Nation and its sovereignty, ultimately ruling that the Cherokee were not a foreign nation but rather a domestic dependent nation.
Worcester vs Georgia-A landmark Supreme Court case that determined the state of Georgia could not enforce its laws within Cherokee territory, affirming the sovereignty of Native American nations.
Whig Party-A political party formed in the 1830s that opposed the Democratic Party and supported a strong legislative branch.
Log Cabin Campaign-a political campaign strategy employed by William Henry Harrison during the 1840 presidential election, which emphasized his humble beginnings and connection to the common man.
Annexation of Texas-A significant event leading to heightened tensions between the United States and Mexico, ultimately contributing to the outbreak of the Mexican-American War.
Election of 1844-the Whig Party nominated Henry Clay, while the Democrats chose James K. Polk, leading to a contentious campaign focused on expansionism and the annexation of Texas.
54’40 or Fight-a slogan used during the 1844 presidential campaign that referred to the northern boundary of the Oregon Territory, advocating for U.S. control over the entire region.
Oregon Trail-A key route for settlers moving westward, the Oregon Trail stretched approximately 2,170 miles from Missouri to the Oregon Territory, facilitating migration during the mid-1800s.
Mexican War-A conflict between the United States and Mexico from 1846 to 1848, driven by the U.S. desire for territorial expansion and the annexation of Texas.
Wilmot Proviso-A proposed amendment to ban slavery in territory acquired from Mexico during the Mexican War.
Ostend Manifesto-A document that urged the United States to purchase or annex Cuba from Spain, reflecting the expansionist desires of the era.
Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo-Treaty that ended the Mexican-American War in 1848, resulting in the U.S. acquiring territories that would become California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and parts of Colorado and New Mexico.
Oregon Territory-Acquired through the Oregon Treaty of 1846, this territory was a significant area for westward expansion and played a crucial role in the debate over slavery.
Growth of Railroads-facilitated westward expansion by connecting the eastern states to the western territories, allowing for increased trade, migration, and the transport of goods across vast distances.
Gold Rush-A significant event that led to mass migration to California in 1849, drastically impacting the economy and population.
Compromise of 1850-a series of legislative measures aimed at resolving the territorial and slavery disputes arising from the Mexican-American War.
Fugitive Slave Act-A law passed as part of the Compromise of 1850 that required all escaped slaves to be returned to their masters, even if they were found in free states.
Civil War (1850-1877)
Concepts
Slavery and the Constitution-the legal framework surrounding slavery was deeply intertwined with the U.S. Constitution, particularly through clauses that protected slaveholders' rights and limited the federal government's ability to regulate slavery.
Popular Sovereignty-the principle that the authority of a state and its government is created and sustained by the consent of its people, often applied to the decision of whether to allow slavery in new territories.
Slavery in the territories-the debate over whether to allow slavery in newly acquired lands led to significant political conflict, exemplified by the Missouri Compromise and the Kansas-Nebraska Act.
Different Degrees of Abolitionism-the movement to end slavery varied widely among different groups, with some advocating for immediate emancipation while others sought gradual approaches or compensation for slave owners.
Secession and states rights-the idea that states have the right to govern themselves and make decisions independent of federal authority, which became a central issue leading to the Civil War.
Lincoln and the Constitution-Lincoln's approach to the Constitution was marked by a commitment to preserving the Union, often interpreting his presidential powers expansively to justify actions such as the Emancipation Proclamation.
Expansion of Executive Power-Lincoln's administration took significant steps to expand the executive branch's authority, including the suspension of habeas corpus and the use of military tribunals to address dissent.
Democracy strengthened-the belief in popular sovereignty and increased participation in the political process.
Reconstruction-A period following the Civil War during which the Southern states were reorganized and reintegrated into the Union, focusing on rebuilding the economy and society.
Executive vs. Legislative-the balance of power shifted as presidents began to take more unilateral actions, often bypassing Congress in matters of policy and governance.
People/Groups
John Calhoun-Vice President of the United States and a strong advocate for states' rights.
Stephen Douglas-Senator from Illinois who played a significant role in the debate over the expansion of slavery into the territories.
Harriet Beecher Stowe-author of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," which highlighted the moral issues of slavery and galvanized anti-slavery sentiment in the North.
Harriet Tubman-A key figure in the abolitionist movement and conductor of the Underground Railroad, known for her bravery in leading enslaved individuals to freedom.
Sumner/Brooks-The violent clash between Senator Charles Sumner and Congressman Preston Brooks in 1856 highlighted the deepening divisions over slavery in the United States.
John Brown-An abolitionist who believed in armed insurrection as a means to end slavery; known for his raid on Harper's Ferry in 1859.
James Buchanan-15th president of the United States, known for his inability to prevent the Civil War.
Abraham Lincoln-16th president of the United States, led the nation through the Civil War and worked to end slavery.
John C. Breckenridge-Southern Democratic candidate in the 1860 presidential election, who advocated for the expansion of slavery into the territories.
Clement Vallingdaham-A prominent Democratic politician and anti-war advocate during the Civil War, known for his controversial opposition to Lincoln's policies.
George McClellan-Union general during the Civil War who later ran against Lincoln in the 1864 presidential election.
Republican Party-Founded in 1854, it emerged in response to the Kansas-Nebraska Act and advocated for the containment of slavery.
Jefferson Davis-President of the Confederate States of America during the Civil War.
U.S. Grant-Commanding General of the United States Army during the Civil War, known for his aggressive tactics and leadership in securing Union victories.
Robert E. Lee-General of the Confederate Army, known for his leadership during the Civil War.
William T. Sherman-Union general known for his "March to the Sea" during the Civil War.
William Seward-Secretary of State under Abraham Lincoln, known for his purchase of Alaska in 1867.
Andrew Johnson-17th president of the United States, known for his impeachment and the implementation of Reconstruction policies.
Radical Republicans-a faction within the Republican Party during the Reconstruction era that advocated for strong measures against the Southern states and full civil rights for freed slaves.
Thaddeus Stevens-Leader of the Radical Republicans in the House of Representatives, known for his strong advocacy for civil rights and Reconstruction policies.
Charles Sumner-A leading abolitionist and senator who fought for civil rights and was a prominent figure in the Radical Republican faction.
Booker T. Washington-First African American to be elected to the United States Senate.
W.E.B. DuBois-co-founder of the NAACP and a prominent advocate for civil rights and higher education for African Americans.
Events
Gadsden Purchase-A 1854 agreement in which the United States acquired land from Mexico, facilitating the construction of a southern transcontinental railroad.
Kansas-Nebraska Act-Legislation passed in 1854 that allowed settlers in the territories of Kansas and Nebraska to decide for themselves whether or not to allow slavery within their borders.
Bleeding Kansas-a series of violent confrontations between pro-slavery and anti-slavery factions in the Kansas Territory during the mid-1850s, which highlighted the intense national conflict over the expansion of slavery.
LeCompton Constitution-proposed a pro-slavery constitution for Kansas, which was heavily contested and ultimately rejected by Congress.
Dred Scott Decision-Supreme Court ruling in 1857 that declared African Americans were not citizens and had no legal standing to sue in federal court, further escalating tensions between free and slave states.
Lincoln-Douglas Debate-a series of seven debates in 1858 between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas, focusing on the issue of slavery and its expansion into the territories.
Harpers Ferry-the site of John Brown's raid in 1859, which aimed to initiate an armed slave revolt by seizing a United States arsenal.
Election of 1860-the pivotal moment that led to the election of Abraham Lincoln as the first Republican president, further escalating tensions between the North and South.
Confederacy-A group of southern states that seceded from the Union in 1861, leading to the Civil War.
Border States-States that remained loyal to the Union during the Civil War, including Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri.
Crittenden Compromise-a last-ditch effort proposed by Senator John J. Crittenden to prevent the Civil War by extending the Missouri Compromise line westward and allowing slavery in territories south of this line.
Fort Sumter-The first battle of the Civil War, which took place in April 1861, leading to the secession of four additional Southern states.
Civil War-A conflict that lasted from 1861 to 1865, primarily over the issues of slavery and states' rights, leading to significant social, political, and economic changes in the United States.
Emancipation Proclamation-An executive order issued by President Abraham Lincoln on January 1, 1863, declaring the freedom of all slaves in Confederate-held territory.
Homestead Act of 1862-Provided 160 acres of public land to settlers for a small fee, encouraging westward expansion and settlement.
Morrill Land Grant Act-Legislation that provided federal land to states to fund higher education institutions, significantly impacting agricultural and technical education.
National Banking Act-Established a system of national banks and created a national currency to stabilize the economy during and after the Civil War.
Election of 1864-This election was significant as it took place during the Civil War, showcasing the divided nation and the crucial decision of whether to continue fighting for Union victory or seek peace.
Appomattox-the site where General Robert E. Lee surrendered to General Ulysses S. Grant on April 9, 1865, effectively ending the Civil War.
Wade-Davis Bill-A proposal for Reconstruction that required a majority of white male citizens in a state to take a loyalty oath before rejoining the Union.
Presidential Reconstruction-a plan initiated by President Abraham Lincoln and later continued by Andrew Johnson, aimed at quickly reintegrating the Southern states into the Union following the Civil War.
Black Codes-laws enacted in Southern states after the Civil War to restrict the rights and freedoms of newly freed African Americans.
Congressional Reconstruction-a period during which Congress took control of Reconstruction efforts, aiming to impose stricter requirements on Southern states for reentry into the Union.
Military Reconstruction-A period following the Civil War in which the federal government took control of the Southern states to ensure the protection of African American rights and the enforcement of Reconstruction policies.
Freedmen's Bureau-A federal agency established in 1865 to assist freed slaves and poor whites in the South by providing food, housing, education, and medical care.
Civil RIghts Act of 1865-prohibited racial discrimination in public accommodations and aimed to secure the rights of newly freed African Americans.
Civil War Amendments (13th, 14th, 15th)-These amendments aimed to abolish slavery, grant citizenship to former slaves, and secure voting rights for all men regardless of race.
Johnson’s Impeachment-a significant event in American history, resulting from his violation of the Tenure of Office Act and leading to a contentious trial in the Senate.
KKK-Ku Klux Klan: A white supremacist group that emerged during Reconstruction, known for its violent opposition to African American civil rights and efforts to restore white dominance.
Jim Crow Laws-state and local statutes enacted in the Southern United States that enforced racial segregation and disenfranchised African Americans following the Reconstruction era.
Literacy Tests-discriminatory practices used to disenfranchise African American voters by requiring them to pass complex reading and writing tests.
Poll Taxes-fees required to be paid before voting, which disproportionately affected African American voters and poor whites.
Grandfather Clauses-Legal provisions that allowed individuals to bypass literacy tests and poll taxes if their grandfathers had been eligible to vote before the Civil War.
Sharecropping-a system where farmers, particularly African Americans, would work land owned by someone else in exchange for a share of the crops, often leading to a cycle of debt and poverty.
Crop-lien System-a credit system used by sharecroppers and tenant farmers in the South, where they would receive supplies and food on credit against their future harvests.
Grant Scandals-Political corruption during Ulysses S. Grant's presidency, including scandals such as the Credit Mobilier and the Whiskey Ring, which undermined public trust in the government.
Election of 1876-a contentious presidential election that resulted in the compromise of 1877, ultimately leading to the end of Reconstruction.
Compromise of 1877-An agreement that settled the disputed 1876 presidential election, resulting in Rutherford B. Hayes becoming president in exchange for the withdrawal of federal troops from the South.
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