The American Civilization and the Civil Government in the Philippines (Philippines 1898-1935)

The Treaty of Paris and Early American Imperialist Objectives

• Racial and Historical Context: The transition from Spanish to American rule in the Philippines occurred amidst a backdrop of anti-racial discrimination sentiments in the US during the late twentieth century. However, as early as $1898$, racial considerations were central to the American objective in the Philippines. The US mission was framed by imperialist ambitions and the desire for commercial expansion, particularly into Chinese commerce.

• The Treaty of Paris ($12/10/1898$): This treaty officially formalized the transfer of control from Spain to the United States.

  • Provisions: The United States acquired the Philippines, Cuba, and Puerto Rico.

  • Financial Consideration: The US paid Spain a sum of $20,000,000\,US\,dollars$.

  • Key Representative: John Hay, the US Secretary of State, played a pivotal role in these negotiations.

• Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation: Issued by President McKinley, this policy characterized the US occupation as one of friendship rather than conquest.

  • Key Dates: The proclamation was issued on $12/21/1898$ and was publicly proclaimed in the Philippines on $01/04/1899$.

  • Ideology: The US presented itself as a protecting power, offering "civilizing missions" rooted in concepts of brotherhood, equality, and liberty, although critics viewed this as a facade for global imperialism.

• US Interests and Global Strategy: The acquisition served a strategic purpose for the US Navy, allowing the US to secure ports comparable to Singapore or Hong Kong to facilitate global trade. Key figures like Commodore George Dewey were instrumental in establishing this naval presence.

The Philippine Commissions and the Transition to Civilian Rule

• The Sherman Commission (First Philippine Commission, $1899$): Formed to study the situation in the islands and establish a civilian government to replace military rule.

  • Members: Jacob Sherman (Chairman from Cornell University), Admiral Dewey, Charles b. (Minister to China), and Dean Worcester (Zoology Professor at the University of Michigan).

  • Function: The commission conducted interviews with selected Filipino elites to gauge the perspective of the "party" and negotiators. It sought to determine the responsibility of a future civilian government.

• The Taft Commission (Second Philippine Commission, $1900$): Headed by William Howard Taft, this body was tasked with exercising legislative power.

  • Members: William Howard Taft (Judge from Ohio), Luke Wright, Henry Ayd, and Bernard Moses (Professor at the University of California).

  • Legislative Shift: The Spooner Amendment of $1901$ officially allowed the transition from military to civilian government.

  • Leadership: William Howard Taft became the first civilian Governor General of the Philippines in $1901$, succeeding military governors like General L. L. Otis.

The Philippine-American War: Conflict and Legal Suppression

• Escalation of Warfare: Military rule transitioned under leaders like General Arthur McArthur, who served as commander and secretary of war. The US viewed the conflict as an "insurrection" against their established government.

• Skirmish Data and Casualties: Specific encounters documented during the war highlight the disparity in forces:

  • December $1899$: An encounter resulted in the death/capture of $88\,\text{Filipino}$.

  • March $1900$: Action against $29\,\text{Filipinos}$.

  • May $1900$: A major clash involving $134\,\text{Filipino}$.

• Amnesty and Suppression: Proclamation $483$, issued by Theodore Roosevelt, offered a full and complete pardon and amnesty to those involved in the insurrections who pledged allegiance to the US.

• Key Legislation for Control:

  • Sedition Act ($11/04/1901$): Classified resistance as treason, punishable by death or imprisonment at hard labor in concentration camps.

  • Brigandage Act (November $1902$): Effectively criminalized nationalist activities and forced populations into monitored zones.

  • Censorship: Between $1901$ and $1902$, there was a total ban on political parties and a heavy crackdown on nationalist sentiment.

• The Case of Apolinario Mabini: Labeled a "trouble" to US sovereignity, Mabini continually refused to recognize the US government despite his health condition. He was subsequently deported to Guam to suppress his influence.

Political Reorganization and the Policies of Filipinization

• The Insular Government: Officially known as the Government of the Philippine Islands, established with four main executive departments:

  • Department of the Interior and Local Government.

  • Department of Commerce and Police.

  • Department of Finance and Justice.

  • Department of Public Instruction.

• Local and Provincial Governance:

  • Municipal Government Act of $1901$ (Act Number $82$): Allowed for elected local officials (Presidente). Eligibility was restricted to those at least $23\,\text{years old}$.

  • Provincial Government: Initially supervised by Americans, including roles like Treasurer and Supervisor.

• Philippine Organic Act of $1902$ (Cooper Act): Served as the civil constitution for the Philippines. It established a bicameral legislature:

  • The Philippine Commission: The higher chamber (initially all American).

  • The Philippine Assembly: The lower chamber for Filipino representatives.

• Filipinization of the Judiciary and Commission: The US began integrating Filipinos into high-ranking positions:

  • Cayetano Aureliano: Appointed as the first Filipino Chief Justice of the Supreme Court.

  • Legal Branch: Included Filipinos as Attorney Generals, Assistant Attorney Generals, and Solicitor Generals.

  • Commissioners: Noted Filipino members included Regalta, Rafael Palma, Gregory Oraneta, Wensumulong, and Victoria de Vera. Gregory Oraneta later became the Secretary of Finance and Justice in $1910$.

Economic Integration and Socio-Educational Reforms

• Political Parties: The Federal Party (established $1902$) was the first major party, advocating for assimilation and economic ties with the US.

• Trade Laws:=

  • Underwood Simons Act of $1913$: Established a quota system for Filipino products like sugar and coconut oil, effectively making them duty-free in the US market.

  • Economic Specialization: Filipino production was geared toward American needs, forcing technological shifts in the sugar and coconut industries.

• Infrastructure and Labor:

  • The Manira Railroad Company: Expansion of inter-island shipping and the Manila to the Guban Railway (active by the $1920s$).

  • Labor Issues: Significant labor movements and issues regarding Christian-American relations emerged around $1913$, particularly in the south with Muslim populations.

• Educational Restructuring: The US used education as a primary tool for "propaganda" and cultural restructuring over a period of $30$ to $35\,\text{years}$.

  • Act $1801$: Funded the construction of schools across the islands.

  • Institutions Established:

    • Philippine Normal School ($1901$).

    • University of the Philippines (UP) ($1908$).

    • Philippines Training School for Nurses ($1909$).

    • Philippines School of Arts and Trade in Manila ($1915$).

    • Philippine Nautical School and Philippines School of Commerce.

  • Impact: These institutions set new standards for professional occupations, including medical clinics and the College of Education, effectively realigning the Filipino worldview with American standards by $1935$.