on virtues and feminism
aristotles virtue ethics (individuals cultivation of virtues that contribute to a life of happiness and societal well-being)
book 1
aim of all actions:
aristotle argues that every action aims at some good (the supreme good)
there is a hierarchy in the purposes of actions, some actions are done for their own sake and some serve as means to reach other ends.
the role of poli sci
poli sci is “architectonic” science because it determines the overarching good. it guides that sciences are activies are necessary for society.
this brand of philosophy addresses ethics by focusing on the collective good, which aristotle bleuves is moe noble than individual good.
happiness of the state is more important than personal happiness alone.
concept of happiness
happiness is the highest good
the general population associates happiness with wealth, pleasure, or honor. philosophers view it as something more complere and self-sufficient. happiness must be an ennd in itself, that fufills a self-contained goal that does not rely on external factors (intrinsic)
3 kinds of life
sensual life (seeking pleasure)
political life (seeking honor)
speculative life (seeking knowledge or contemplation)
finality and self-sufficiency of happiness
true happiness must be final and self-sufficient, it is sought for its own sake and fulfills a complete human life.
ethics
believes developing character to pursue the highest good. phronesis (practical wisdom) guides individuals in making morally sound decisions.
ethics are an lifelong endeavor.
emphasizes the responsibilities individuals hold toward society.
happiness as the supreme good
aristotle asserts that happiness is universally recognized as the ultimate good but seeks to clarify its nature
function of man
man has a distinction function — an activity of soul in accordance with reason
humans differ from other beings because of their ability to reason. thus, the human function is living life governed by rational activity
the function of a good person involves noble actions in line with virtue. happiness is therefore found in living virtuously over a complete life.
types of virtue
intellectual virtue: acquired through teaching and experience
moral virtue: developed through habit, implying that consistent ethical actions create virtuous individuals
habituation and virture
virtue is not inborn but cultivated through repeated good actions
one becomes courageous by facing fears regularly
legislators and virtue
laws shape citizens habits to make them virtuous, aiming for a stable and morally sound society
legislators bear ethical responsibility to create laws that encourage virtue, promoting social stability and ethical behavior on a broader scale
ethics as practice
unlike theoretical studies, ethics is practical, guiding actions rather than mere understanding
right action:
virtuous actions is tied to “right reason” but depends on circumstances, requiring flexibility in judgement
the doctrine of the mean
virtue in found in moderation, avoiding both excess and deficiency. for example, courage is the mean between recklessness and cowardice
role of pleasure and pain: virtue involves managing pleasure and pain, choosing noble actions that may sometimes bring discomfort
moral testing: a persons reaction to pleasure and pain reveals their moral character, with virtue marked by finding joy in self-restraint and courage in facing fears
training for virtue: early habituation to virtuous actions prepares individuals to make ethical choices
components of the soul
emotions; inclinations that anger, joy, or fear, which are accompanied by pleasure or pain.
faculties: abilities to feel emotions, such as feeling anger or pity
moral states: dispositions affecting emotional responses, guiding people to react moderately to emotions.
virtue as a balanced disposition: virtue involved moderating emotions through habituation, maintaining balance
virtues vs emotions
virtues and vices differ from emotions, we do not praise or blame someone simply feeling emotions rather (emotions) we praise or blame how they handle those emotions (virtue)
virtue as excellence and the mean
virtue: an excellence that allows a person to perform their function well, like the way the excellence of an eye allows it see well
the mean: virtue is a described as a mean relative to the individual. a balanced point between two extremes of excess and deficiency.
virtue as an aim at the mean
virtue as a deliberate mean: virtue is characterized by a deliberate choice aimed at achieving the mean in both emotions and actions
virtue in relation to vices: each virtue sits between two vices, such as courage between recklessness and cowardice. the mean in considered the “right” way, but aristotle acknowledges that the mean itself in an extreme in excellence.
non-negotiable vices: some actions, like murder and theft, are inherently wrong regardless of intention or context and do not admit a mean.
finding the mean
difficulty of the mean: hitting the mean requires wisdom and precision similar to technical skills like finding the center of a circle
avoiding extremes: practicing avoidance of whichever extreme we are inclined toward. for instance, if prone to excess in anger, one should strive toward the opposite to approximate the mean.
pleasure can bias our judgement
teachings of confucius
virtue and moral character
confucius emphasizes the importance of lifelong learning and consistent application. learning is a continual process to refine moral character, rather to gain status or recognition
true virtue requires not seeking pleasure, wealth, or comfort for oneself but instead focusing on moral conduct and relationships
the superior man focuses on righteousness, humility, and sincerity.
character and integrity over individual gains or recognition. morality is something cultivated through actions and relationships rather than a tool for individual advancement
propriety and filial piety
filial piety (respect for one’s parents) is at the core of virtuous actions. respect and loyalty within families provide a foundation for broader social ethics and harmony
adhering to traditional rules of propriety is important to moral character and social harmony.
propriety governs behavior in various aspects of life, family interactions to governmental duties.
family can be seen as a microcosm for respecting societal roles and laws.
reciprocity and the golden rule
people should avoid doing to others what they would not want done to themselves.
governance and the role of virtue
a ruler who governs through virtue will inspire the same in the people. laws and punishments may enforce compliance but fail to inspire moral goodness.
the role of the superior man
a person of high moral character who acts with sincerity, earnestness, kindness, and generosity. he avoids partisanship, practices self-discipline, and seeks to refine his moral character continuously.
recognizing and overcoming faults
recognize faults, examine actions, strive for improvement.
wisdom and spiritual respect
wisdom involves performing one’s duties with integrity while maintaining a respectful distance from spiritual matters.
focusing on practical ethical concerns rather than purely abstract of metaphysical questions.
the mean and balance in virtue
excess in any direction can disrupt social harmony and personal integrity. practice in moderation.
comparable to aristotle’s “doctrine of the mean”
aristotles virtue theory
virtue theory and the ideal person
character traits: confidence, courage, and generosity without excess. well-balanced and naturally leads to right actions
a good person will naturally do good things without needing a rule book
eudaimonia
eudaimonia (human flourishing) is the ultimate aim of life
a virtuous life, focused on continuous self-improvement
it is not an easy or leisurely life but rather one filled with purpose, satisfaction, and resilience. continuous striving towards the best version of oneself defines eudaimonia.
concept of proper functioning
every being has a specific purpose or function and goodness depends on fulfilling that function
just as a knife is good when it cuts well a person is good when they fulfill their function of being virtuous in their interactions with others
the golden mean
courage is the midpoint between recklessness and cowardice
generosity is between stinginess and extravegance
honesty lies between brutal honesty and excessive restraint
virtue as practical wisdom (phronesis)
not theoretical, but rather “street smarts”
to learn virtue, follow a moral exemplar.
developing virtue through habituation
habit formation: virtues become ingrained through habituation.
virtue vs ren
virtue: excellence, associated with human function.
aristotle argues that virtue allows humans to perform their unique function effectively
ren: a relational quality, guided by ritual propriety (li)
implies noble human traits
differences in application
individual excellence by fulfilling rational and social functions (virtue) vs social relationships guided by ritual propriety
concept of ren
ren combines filial love with the principle of returning to li
ren is cultural etiquette and moral virtue
ren embodies humaneness, is cultivated through li and guides individuals to behave virtuously
li is adherence to cultural norms, yi is a principle for righteousness where li doesn’t clearly apply
filial love is central to cultivating ren. respect towards duty toward family create a natural social hierarchy.
filial love expands from family to broader social circles.
social context
li focuses on harmony within a structured society and ren is actualized through role-based duties, which emphasizes hierarchical social structures.
virtue develops through habituation and aligns with practical wisdom.
phronesis
helps individuals understand why socially learned behaviors are noble and true. knowledge based understanding of virtue
guides the selection of virtuous ends in conflicting situations
recognizes the limits of universal principles and allows for adaptability
character building through good social habits
friendship and love (aristotle)
philia (friendship) is essential to human happiness (eudaimonia) natural and voluntary.
parental love is intense, but sees friendships as mirrors reflecting ones own virtues and character.
confucius thinks love starts with family, and therefore benefits society. but aristotle promotes self-reflective virtue and rational self-love that indirectly benefits society through friendships.
modern dilemmas
confucianism prioritizes filial loyalty over impartiality, which places family over universal justice in ethical conflicts
Confucian values critique western indivualism
aristotle's focus on personal virtue challenges utilitarian or rule based frameworks by emphasizing context based moral decision making
reconnects reason with virtue for balanced ethical frameworks.
the birth of Chinese feminism
critiques confucianism and its role in Chinese patriarchal society. classical texts were used to institutionalize gender inequality by setting strict hierarchical roles for men and women
identifies Confucian ideology as reinforcing men’s supremacy and restricting women’s autonomy.
examples of enforced obedience, restrictions on remarriage for women, and the idea that woman are to act as extensions of men's will
li places women in a subordinate roles by ritualizing obedience and service to men in familial and social settings.
social structures led to suffering for countless women.
patriarchal norms were unchallenged and ingrained
re-examine Confucian principles to challenge the normalized inequality that has been both culturally and institutionally embedded in society
Confucian family state and women’s role
women roles were strictly domestic
the choson dynasty in Korea where Confucian ideals justified women’s subordiantion.
confucian values could support a feminst perspective by advocating moral equality between genders
ren is applicable to both men and women, thus a Confucian society could theoretically support women’s self-cultivation
traditional Confucian family states learned toward partiarachy but reinterpretation could allow for shared family roles and equal parent responsibility
people centeredness: the notion that rules should prioritize the people’s welfare suggests a form of political ethics, aligning with gender equality by supporting policies for family well-being
a democratic Confucian family state could uphold family and communal values while supporting women participation in both family and public spheres
3.3 v 3.4
kant emphasizes principles, universalizability, and respect for individuals, while mill focuses on outcomes, collective happiness, and the balance of pleasures. kant focuses on protecting rights and mill maximizes social welfare. kant is rigid, mill is flexible. kant is intrinsic, concentrates on the principle, mill focuses on consequences and results of actions.
3.3
good will as the only unqualified good
nothing is inherently good without qualification except a “good will”
courage of happiness can be used for both good and bad, but good will is not valued for what is achieves but because of its intrinsic nature.
qualities like self-control and moderation are praised but need a good will to prevent them from being harmful
a calm but malicious person is more dangerous than an openly cruel one.
actions done from duty (moral worth) and those driven by inclination (no moral worth, despite positive outcomes)
ex: a shopkeeper who doesn’t overcharge to maintain his reputation acts from self-interest rather than duty.
true moral worth only exists when actions are done because they are intrinsically right
duty is not about achieving certain results but acting from principles and respect for moral law.
ex: preserving ones life from duty, even when life has lost its luster shows moral worth, it’s not motivated by personal inclination
practical love (acting out of duty for others’ welfare) and pathological love (driven by emotional affection)
while feelings cannot be commanded, practical love can be commanded. we are morally required to act kindly toward others, including those we might dislike
moral worth comes from actions done from duty alone
actions done from duty derive their moral worth from the principle that inspires them, not from the desired outcomes. morality is the intention, not the result
duty requires action from respect for law, where the moral law is an end in itself, not a means to satisfy inclination
good will and duty introduces moral autonomy, where individuals are responsible for their actions through rational adherence to duty, independent of external rewards
ethics contrasts with utilitarian ethics
moral actions should be guided by maxims that can be universally applied. a moral good will is on that acts in accordance with a universal law, not based on outcomes
challenges us to consider the broader implications of our actions on society.
being truthful due to fear of consequences is prudence, being truthful because it is right shows moral worth
3.4 Mill
actions are morally right if they promote happiness and wrong if they cause unhappiness (the greatest happiness principle)
utilitarianism is based on maximizing happiness, making it a primary moral directive
the ultimate goal of all actions is an existence rich in pleasures and as free from pain as possible
encourages individuals to be impartial, weighing their own happiness against that of others equally.
internal sanctions (conscience or pain associated with violating moral duty) can become intense and lead to remorse if cultivated properly.
happiness cannot be proven in the conventional sense but can be affirmed by observing human desires. since each person desires their own happiness, the aggregate of these desires implies that general happiness is a good for society as a whole.
higher (intellectual) and lower (bodily) pleasures, implicates mental pleasures to be intrinsically superior.
the higher quality of pleasure is determined by those who have experienced both.
there is an importance of educated judgement in ethical decision-making.
advocates for the role of experience and education in cultivating moral judgement
human beings will not choose lower forms of satisfaction even if they seemed content with them
human dignity makes higher pleasures more desirable even if they bring more challenges
many people settle for lower pleasures due to lack of opportunity or the fragile nature of higher aspirations. people might lose access to higher pleasures because they lack the social or personal resources to maintain them
Study Guide Questions
Confucius
1. Where did Confucius study? Who did he work with and for?
a. He studied various studies through Qi, Chen, and Song
b. He worked with
c. He worked for the state of Lu
2. What does Confucius think about moral character?
- Moral character is formed in the family, in education and ritual. Love and respect is learned in the family so duty to the family outweighs all others.
3. Why did Confucius resign his position as advisor to the ruler of his home state of Lu?
a. Lu became distracted by indulgence and moral failings. Duke of Qi (a neighboring state) sent him a gift of 80 beautiful women and a troupe of fine horses. The Duke of Lu became so preoccupied with these luxuries that he neglected state affairs and governance. Confucius viewed this as a betrayal of ethical leadership and resigned in protest.
4. Why was it difficult for Confucius to find other rulers to advise?
- Confucius could not find a leader who was virtuous enough. [Try explaining this]
5. How does Confucius conceive of the love and respect that are learned in the family? What are the Analects?
a. He conceives of love and respect as fundamental to all virtues
b. View family with reverence
c. Analects are the collection of Confucious saying and teachings.
6. What is ren? How is it expressed differently in the two translations?
a. The definition of Ren is a virtue. It is expressed as love (rooted in filial piety and brotherly love. Also expressed as “returning to “propriety” social regulation, adhering to norms of propriety, ceremony, decorum and manners.
b. Two translations are perfect virtue and humanness
7. What are the four important elements of Confucian philosophy discussed in the video?
a. Ceremony is important, treat parents with respect/ reverence, be obedient to honorable people, cultivated knowledge can be more important than creativity.
8. What are the five constant virtues?
a. Benevolence, ritual propriety, righteousness, wisdom, integrity.
9. What is li?
a. Rituals, customs, or behavior that will maintain social harmony.
10. How does Confucius conceive of the good life? How does his view differ from hegemonic ideas of the good life in the West?
a. Your life should always be improving. Happiness is not a matter of central pleasure.
11. Why is the class on Chinese philosophy so popular at Harvard University?
a. The class encourages students to think deeply about their own lives:
b. Confucian teachings challenge them to reflect on their relationships and moral choices
c. Students often describe the course as “life-changing”, making it not just an academic experience but a transformative one
12. Describe Confucius’s view of ritual.
a. Everything in life is ritual, using your body in everyday life is ritual and shows connectiveness.
13. What might be the implications of online communication in the contemporary world?
It can blur the lines between public and private life and the anonymity of audiences in online spaces can disrupt role performance. The collapse of different social contexts can hinder people’s ability to act appropriately.
14. What might be problems that emerge from conceiving collective happiness in terms of maximizing the happiness of the individual, and why does David Moser believe that a Confucian approach might offer a compelling alternative?
a. Maximizing happiness in terms of the individual tends to lead to conflict.
b. We need rituals to show goodwill. Compromising own status betters for others
Confucius and Dussel
1. In which stage of Dussel’s interregional system did Confucianism emerge? What social situation was occurring, and what role did Confucius play in justifying this situation?
a. Confucianism emerged at the second stage of Dussel’s interregional system.
b. What was occurring during this time and what did Confucius’ ideas play in structuring and regulating this societal situation?
2. What is Dussel’s critique of Confucianism? What does Dussel Find problematic about Confucianism?
Dussel critiques that Confucianism reinforces hierarchal structures, patriarchal norms, and the authoritarian state powers that were already in place. He points out how they create rigid roles of superiority and subordination, especially with gender roles within the family itself.
Feminism and Confucianism
a. On the Revenge of Women
1. What are two critiques of Confucianism describe in the text?
The two critiques of Confucianism that are described in the text are specific to the unfair treatment of women, specifically regarding the elevation of the patriarchy that institutionalizes a gender hierarchy. Zhen suggests that after the Qin and Han dynasties, Confucianism became the state-wide ideology, creating a theoretical justification of making women the subordinate class. This is like how, after the second modernity, Aristotle had given Europeans the justification to own slaves.
1) Confucianism justifies gender domination.
2) Hypocrisy and moral failing of male authority figures.
3) It is a formality that consolidates ethics.
4) Democracy isn't always humane.
5) Women and men are equal in the possession in their of moral capacity and ought to cultivate themselves to embody the virtues
2. Why does Zhen find this expression Problematic: “Yang initiates, yin harmonizes” of Confucian Family-State and Women: A Proposal for Confucian Feminism,”
She criticizes that this saying, which means “men act, women, follow,” is very misogynistic as it internalizes the belief men and women have a relationship of absolute inequality through cosmic abstraction.
3. Identify and discuss (contextualize, explain, and/or explore the implications or consequences) of at least one argument offered by the author to defend the idea that “Confucianism is not…destined to remain an inherently sexist and…reactionary ideology” (p. 78).
Zhen argues that Confucianism isn’t inherently sexist, but instead, it was prominent at a time when scholars were much more patriarchal and manipulated the teachings of Confucius. She highlights that the idea of Men first, Women last was a later concept that was driven by male-led interpretations like the commentary of Guliang and the Records of Rites.
Aristotle
1. When and where was Aristoteles born?
a. 384 BC in Greece
b. Time when there was a shift between the first interregional system to the second
2. Who did Aristoteles tutor in Macedonia?
a. Alexander the Great
3. What is the focus of virtue theory?
a. Be a good person and right actions will follow
b. Human flourishing
c. Try to attain the golden mean, find the lesser of two evils
d. Learn virtue by watching it and it will manifest in you
4. What does it mean to be virtuous?
a. State of deliberate moral purpose
b. Knowing the right action to follow at the right time to produce the best outcome possible
5. How does Aristotle describe courage?
a. The midpoint between the vices of cowardice and recklessness
b. To be able to judge a situation based on awareness of your own ability, all before taking action
6. How does Aristotle describe the right action?
a. The right action is the midpoint between two extremes
b. Knowing when and how to act and when to call upon an authority
7. How would Aristoteles describe the virtues of honesty and generosity?
a. The virtue of honesty is centered around the midpoint of knowing what should be said and should be kept private
b. The virtue of generosity is giving when you can to those in need and knowing when you can’t
i. Between stinginess and over-generosity
8. What is practical wisdom?
a. Part of habitual character
b. Learning through practice and through others and embodying those traits
c. Practical wisdom is learning to be virtuous by practicing it in life and learning through experience and moral exemplars. This is important to help strive for eudaimonia.
9. What are moral exemplars? Does this relate to Confucius’s account of honourable people?
a. Moral exemplars are people who are virtuous and people one looks up to. Being the best person you can be. “Moral virtue on the other hand is the outcome of habit, and accordingly its name . . . is derived by a single deflexion from habit. . . . From this fact it is clear that no moral virtue is implanted in us by nature; a law of nature cannot be altered by habituation”.
b. “The principle of right behavior, in contrast to egoism. It is something like the principle of justice or what action one should follow or conform to.”
c. It is slightly different in that Confucius advocated for being obedient to rulers and people in power. He also believed it was important to honor elders/your parents. It differs in that you would try to mimic the actions of moral exemplars, whereas in Confucius’s account, you are honoring the people and less aiming to be like them.
10. What is eudaimonia?
a. It means a life well-lived and human flourishing
11.
12. What is morality for Aristotle?
a. Being the best person one can be, and one who does good things
b. Morality will become who you are if you are watching it in others and incorporating it in your own life
c. Being the best person you can be. “Moral virtue on the other hand is the outcome of habit, and accordingly its name . . . is derived by a single deflexion from habit. . . . From this fact it is clear that no moral virtue is implanted in us by nature; a law of nature cannot be altered by habituation”.
d. “The principle of right behavior, in contrast to egoism. It is something like the principle of justice or what action one should follow or conform to.”
Ki-moon and Sachs
1. Why does Jeffrey Sachs believe that Aristoteles is a more relevant figure to understanding the present than Socrates?
Aristotle is more relevant because his focus is on practical ethics, providing guidance for personal behavior (Nicomachean Ethics) and political life (Eudemian Ethics). Aristotle emphasizes on cultivating virtue in individuals and societies is directly applicable to contemporary issues.
2. According to Sachs, what are the two greatest books in the Western philosophical tradition?
Nicomachean Ethics (about personal behavior) Eudemian ethics (political side of ethics)
According to Sachs, what are important similarities between Aristoteles’ and Confucius’s views?
The core of political thought is the same for both- virtue, their philosophy isn't a study of power, but how to create a virtuous society. Individuals and leaders both cultivate moral excellence.
3. According to Sachs, why is the Confucian idea of courtesy so important?
It promotes respect and harmony in social interactions, which are fundamental to creating a peaceful cooperative society. Courtesy reflects a broader commitment to moral behavior and mutual respect.
4. How does Ki-moon describe global citizenship and how does it relate to governance of the family?
Ki-moon describes global citizenship as a sense of responsibility and interconnectedness that transcends national borders. This concept relates to the governance of the family in the sense that the family, like the global community, requires mutual respect, cooperation, and a sense of collective responsibility to thrive.
5. How does Sachs characterize the roots of the conflict between Russia and Ukraine today, and what does he think that a Confucian and an Aristotelean view offer to address the situation? In this context, consider what Sach says about Confucius’s view of courtesy and Aristoteles’s ideas of phronesis and areté.
The conflict between Russia and Ukraine is rooted in a mix of geopolitical tensions, historical issues, and power struggles. Confucian view of courtesy could help by fostering diplomacy, mutual respect, and dialogue, while Aristotle’s ideas of phronesis and arete could guide leaders in acting justly and wisely, working toward peace and a virtuous resolution of the conflict.
6. According to Aristoteles, are human beings inherently good or evil?
Neither, but they are teachable and can learn virtues. Can cultivate personal and political virtue
7. What is Neo-Conservativism? How does it relate and differ to 19th-century notions of Conservativism? How is it different from liberalism and Neo-liberalism?
- Neoconservatism is a militaristic philosophy, peace through strength, pro war philosophy. Conservatism believes in more traditional values, and is more about its own nation and preserving values
- Neo-conservatism is the quest for global hegemony. There are historical roots in U.S. Exceptionalism. Both Neo-conservatism and conservatism emphasize traditional values, patriotism, and nationalism. It is much different from liberalism and neo-liberalism in the sense that they value different things. Conservatives find traditional values important, while more liberal people value freedom and the ability to express oneself.
Dussel and Aristotle
1. What stage of the interregional system do we find Aristotle a part of and responding to?
Beginning of the 4th interregional system
2. What is Dussel’s critique of Aristotle?
Dussel says that Aristotle was basing the concept of “the good life” on his own, privileged life. It was based in misogyny and racism.
3. How were Aristotle’s ideas used to justify colonialism? How central is Aristotles’s ideas to the first modernity?
Aristotle believed people had natural differences and that people could be categorized and separated into different levels of humanity, which was used to justify colonialism.
In the first modernity, massive colonialization and enslavement occurred, and people questioned whether these actions were justifiable. They turned to Aristotle's concept of humans stated above to justify these actions.
Deontology | Consequentialism
Main Principles: Categorical Imperative | Greatest Happiness Principle
Emphasis on: Duty and rational will | Consequences of actions
What makes an action moral?
For Kant: An action is moral if it corresponds to the rational will and can be universalized without contradiction. Actions are guided by duty, not by the pursuit of outcomes.
For Mill: An action is moral if it contributes to overall happiness (pleasure) or prevents pain. The morality of actions depends on their consequences.
How many propositions does Kant have? In your own words, do a short summary of his propositions.
Kant has three propositions:
An action has moral worth only if done from duty.
The morality of an action is determined by its maxim (the principle or reason behind the action), not its consequences.
Duty requires acting out of respect for moral law, which is determined by rational will and not by inclinations.
What are Mill’s main arguments?
Mill argues that actions should be evaluated based on their tendency to promote happiness and reduce pain. Happiness is defined as pleasure and the absence of pain. He emphasizes higher pleasures (intellectual and moral) over lower, sensual ones. Mill also stresses that individual happiness must align with the general happiness of society.
What are human’s desires?
For Kant: Human desires are neither inherently good nor bad; the moral worth lies in cultivating a good will, which acts according to duty rather than inclination.
For Mill: Humans desire pleasure and avoid pain. However, their higher faculties allow them to pursue noble and intellectual pleasures beyond mere sensual satisfaction.
What does Mill say about the happiness of the individual and society?
Mill asserts that the happiness of the individual contributes to the overall happiness of society. However, individuals may sometimes sacrifice personal happiness for the greater good, as noble character and altruistic actions benefit the world as a whole.
What kind of sanctions does this theory have? Explain briefly.
Kant: Internal sanctions arise from rational conflict or unease when one acts against moral law. Respect for moral law governs action, irrespective of external rewards or punishments.
Mill: Internal sanctions come from subjective feelings like conscience, where acting morally produces pleasure and acting immorally causes guilt. External sanctions involve societal rewards, punishments, or divine approval/disapproval.
Views on Human Nature:
Kant: Humans are capable of rational will and moral deliberation. Their character can be cultivated to embody a good will.
Mill: Humans naturally seek pleasure and avoid pain, but their capacity for noble pleasures distinguishes them from animals. However, noble capacities can degrade if not nurtured.
Take an example/scenario or thought experiment. Explain what this theory would say in regard to your chosen case.
Scenario: A person finds a wallet with money and must decide whether to return it or keep it.
Kant’s perspective: The person should return the wallet because the maxim "keep what isn't yours" cannot be universalized without contradiction. Acting from duty to respect others' property rights aligns with moral law.
Mill’s perspective: The person should return the wallet if doing so promotes greater happiness overall. Keeping the wallet might bring personal pleasure, but returning it preserves trust and social harmony, contributing to collective well-being.
Compare and Contrast
Deontology and utilitarianism differ fundamentally in their focus: deontology prioritizes adherence to universal moral rules regardless of outcomes, while utilitarianism evaluates actions based on their consequences, specifically their ability to maximize happiness. Deontology emphasizes individual autonomy and the intrinsic rightness or wrongness of actions, while utilitarianism adopts a collectivist perspective, often prioritizing the well-being of the majority over individual interests. However, both aim to provide a universal framework for morality. Deontology seeks universality through rational laws, while utilitarianism aspires to universal happiness, though its application often requires subjective calculations and compromises.
Critiques
Critiques of Deontology
Exclusion of Material Realities: Deontology dismisses the role of emotions, practical realities, and human inclinations, reducing morality to an abstract, formal procedure disconnected from lived human experiences.
Formalism and Rigidity: By focusing solely on the rational validity of maxims, deontology risks moral inflexibility, failing to accommodate complex, context-specific ethical dilemmas.
Inaccessibility: The abstract nature of Kant's moral reasoning can be overly intellectualized, making it difficult for individuals to apply in everyday contexts.
Critiques of Utilitarianism
Ambiguity of Happiness: Utilitarianism struggles to define happiness with precision, especially when reconciling subjective preferences or balancing higher and lower pleasures.
Impractical Calculations: The requirement to calculate consequences for all affected parties can be empirically impossible and ethically impractical, particularly in urgent situations.
Majority Tyranny: Utilitarianism’s focus on the greatest happiness risks marginalizing minorities or justifying unethical actions if they benefit the majority.
Economic Reductionism: Utilitarianism is criticized for aligning too closely with capitalist market logics, reducing ethical fulfillment to consumer preferences and neglecting the producer’s suffering.