China

Early Modern East Asia

Overview

  • Focus on the period between the 16th and 18th centuries in East Asia, primarily China.

Geographic Context

Notable Locations

  • Atbassar

  • Astana

  • Novosibirsk

  • Krasnoyarsk

  • Bratsk

  • Novokuznetsk

  • Amur River

  • Lake Balkhash

  • Lake Baikal

  • Ulan Ude

  • Chita

  • Khabarovsk

  • Bishkek

  • Qiemo

  • Hotan

  • Islamabad

  • Amritsar

  • Hovd

  • Uliastay

  • Ulaanbaatar

  • Karamay

  • Altay

  • Almaty

  • Urumqi

  • Dalandzadagad

  • Korla

  • Kashi

  • Qiqihar

  • Jixi

  • Harbin

  • Jilin

  • Changchun

  • Sea of Japan (East Sea)

  • Fuxin

  • Shenyang

  • Benxi

  • Hohhot

  • Baotou

  • Beijing

  • Yumen

  • Dalian

  • Tianjin

  • Pyongyang

  • Seoul

  • Yinchuan

  • Shijiazhuang

  • Taiyuan

  • Golmud

  • Xining

  • Lanzhou

  • Pusan

  • Jinan

  • Taian

  • Qingdao

  • Zhengzhou

  • Kaifeng

  • Xian

  • Nanjing

  • Shanghai

  • Chongqing

  • Wuhan

  • Hangzhou

  • Ningbo

  • Fuzhou

  • Panzhihua

  • Guiyang

  • Kunming

  • Xiamen

  • Taipei

  • Taipei

  • Dhaka

  • Manila

  • Hanoi

  • Haiphong

  • Vientiane

  • Hue

Historical Foundations

Founding Myth

  • Yellow Emperor (Huangdi, 黃帝) (2697-2598 BCE)

    • Considered the ancestor of the Huaxia.

    • Serves as a foundational concept of Chinese civilization.

    • Symbolized in various cultural depictions, including statues and historically significant art.

Shang Civilization

Timeline and Key Events

  • 1000 BCE: Early Shang civilization.

  • 350 BCE: Zhou Dynasty begins.

  • The timeline of critical historical states includes:

    • Qin

    • State of Yan

    • State of Chu

    • State of Han

    • State of Zhao

    • State of Qi

    • State of Wei

Dynastic Progression

Overview of Dynasties

  • 210 BCE: Qin Dynasty established.

  • 100 BCE: Han Dynasty rises to power.

  • 262 CE: Emergence of the Three Kingdoms era comprised of:

    • Wei

    • Shu

    • Wu

  • 376 CE: Establishment of Former Qin.

  • 581 CE: Sui Dynasty begins.

  • 700 CE: Tang Dynasty.

  • 923 CE: Wu and Wuyue states established.

  • 1141: Emergence of Jin Dynasty distinct from the Song Dynasty.

  • 1294: Yuan Dynasty characterized by Mongol rule.

  • 1410: Rise of the Ming Dynasty.

  • 1892: Rise of the Qing Dynasty leading into modern history.

  • Present: Discussion of the People's Republic of China and the Republic of China.

Statehood and Empire

Peer Polity Interaction (Renfrew)

  • Notion that state formation can only be understood through the lens of multiple regional units.

  • Suggestion that Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties coexisted rather than sequentially replaced through conflict.

Cosmology: Mandate of Heaven

  • Concept introduced during the Zhou Dynasty.

    • Justifies the overthrow of the Shang Dynasty.

    • Grants emperors the divine right to govern based on capability.

    • Rulers that lose the Mandate are considered unjust and are overthrown.

Characteristics of the Mandate

  • No time limitations or requirements for noble birth for rulers.

  • Injustice manifested in natural disasters leads to the call for a ruler's replacement.

  • Serves as a critical check on imperial power, historically leveraged by scholars to assert the need for fair governance.

  • Non-Han dynasties like the Yuan and Qing also claimed the Mandate for legitimacy.

State-Building and Administration

  • Association of the emperorship with the centralization of power, fostering a bureaucratic state devoid of feudal hierarchies.

  • Recruitment into the ruling class through civil service examinations promotes scholars over aristocrats or merchants.

  • Shift toward increasing bureaucratic efficiency and control lasting into contemporary governance.

  • The tragedy of the centralized structure linked to bloodshed under the First Emperor's regime.

  • The essential lack of hereditary power dynamics among Chinese rulers led feudalism underground.

Size and Governance

  • Argument outlining that unique geographical size hindered the development of democracy compared to European city-states.

  • Autocratic approaches were largely necessitated by the vastness of Chinese territory.

Focus on Political Humanism

  • Despite a longstanding tradition valuing citizens as the foundation, actual governance typically favored bureaucratic and imperial powers.

  • Essential political attributes of governance not accounted for by strong nobility or self-governing towns, lacking equivalent institutions found in Europe.

The Qing Dynasty (1644-1911)

Key Events and Figures

  • Unification of Jurchen tribes by Nurgaci.

  • Li Zicheng's peasant revolt resulting in the fall of the Ming dynasty (1644).

  • Manchu intervention due to alliances with Ming generals leading to establishment of the Qing Dynasty.

  • Massive loss of life due to systematic subjugation policies.

Major Emperors

  • Kangxi (1661-1722)

  • Qianlong (1735-1796)

Territorial Expansion and Governance

  • Notable areas of expansion under Qing rule:

    • Include Tibet (1751 Protectorate), Outer Mongolia, and areas surrounding lake Baikal (Treaty of Nerchinsk 1689).

    • Expansion into East Turkestan (Xinjiang) and Qianghai by 1820.

Cultural Integration

Adoption of Neo-Confucianism

  • Integration of Chinese neo-Confucian thought by Manchus emphasized the importance of a stable societal order paired with moral virtue centered on governance.

  • Introduction of restrictive practices such as the queue hairstyle for the Han Chinese population.

Administrative Linearity

  • Continuance of rigid state structures established in previous dynasties limiting substantial political changes.

  • Local governance structured into departments with degree holders from civil or military examinations assuming roles of influence.

Monitoring, Surveillance, and Control

  • Organizational setup emphasized local government autonomy while preserving overarching control from central bureaucracy.

  • Traditional structures maintained with local patrols for security, framing a networked governing approach.

Power Dynamics

  • Dual path in governmental structure: administrative and investigative roles led to tensions and limited popular governance.

  • Influence of eunuchs in political misconduct highlighted ongoing societal power struggles.

Conclusion of Qing Era

Economic Shifts

  • Noticeable drain of silver post-1620, contributing to financial instability.

  • Isolationist trade policies imposed by the Qing, limiting foreign interaction outside of regulated trade in Guangzhou.

Philosophical Considerations

Neo-Confucian Morality

  • Highlighted pursuit of individual moral perfection as essential to a balanced social order.

  • Emphasis on rites and rituals as transformative societal elements emphasizing historical governance practices.

  • Recognition of the ruler's mindset as a crucial factor in maintaining national well-being according to scholars like Fan Tsu-yu.