The United States: 1945 to 1975 Study Guide

Post-WWII Economic and Baby Boom

  • Post-War Transition: The United States economy boomed following 19451945 due to high levels of wartime industrial production. As the war ended, war production was successfully converted back to domestic industry.

  • Workforce Dynamics: Women, having enjoyed independence during the war, remained in the workforce in large numbers.

  • Economic Indicators:

    • Productivity increased, which drove prices down.

    • Approximately 60%60\% of Americans entered a growing Middle Class during this period.

    • Military budgets remained high due to the Cold War, ensuring that employment levels stayed elevated.

  • Affluence and Innovation: The affluence of the era surpassed that of the 19201920s. New materials developed for the war effort were mass-produced for the retail market, including plastics, latex, plexiglas, and polyester.

  • The Baby Boom: Occurring from the late 19401940s to the mid-19601960s, this era saw accelerated birth rates driven by increased leisure time and financial stability for more people.

  • The Suburbs:

    • New Deal programs and the FHA (Federal Housing Administration) allowed for extensive home building outside of urban centers.

    • Long Island, NY became a primary example of suburban sprawl, hosting the first planned suburban community built by the Levitt Brothers.

    • Levitt House Model (19521952): Featured specific modern equipment such as (11) a Bendix washing machine and (22) a water heater.

  • Social Migration: The term "White Flight" describes the migration of white residents from inner cities to the suburbs, leaving behind decaying neighborhoods to incoming minorities and immigrants from Latin America.

The Early Cold War: Geopolitics and Ideology

  • Clash of Ideologies: The US and the USSR clashed while attempting to fill the power vacuum left after World War II. Western Democracies and Eastern Communist countries forced nations to choose sides.

  • Soviet Expansion: Stalin attempted to surround the USSR with controlled satellite nations by denying free post-war elections in Poland, Bulgaria, and Romania.

  • The Iron Curtain: This term was popularized to describe the invisible line separating Communist Bloc countries from the democratic West.

  • The Division of Germany:

    • Germany was split into 44 zones of occupation: the United States, the USSR, Great Britain, and France.

    • The capital, Berlin, was located entirely within the Soviet sector but was also divided into East and West Berlin among the four nations.

    • The Soviet sector became East Germany, while the Allied sector became West Germany.

    • John F. Kennedy later described West Berlin as "an island of freedom in a sea of Communism."

  • Post-War Asia:

    • General Douglas MacArthur was named occupation commander in Japan to try Japanese war criminals.

    • Japanese Constitution (19461946): Under MacArthur's dictums, Japan accepted a new constitution that:

      • Renounced militarism.

      • Decommissioned all deepwater naval ships.

      • Introduced Democracy.

      • Pushed all national efforts toward industry.

  • Civil War in China:

    • Mao Zedong led the Communists in a crusade to oust the Nationalists.

    • Nationalists under Chiang Kai-shek retreated to the island of Taiwan.

    • By 19491949, mainland China became a Communist country with Mao as the Chairman of the Chinese Government.

Containment and Reinforcement: Truman and Marshall

  • Containment Doctrine: The primary US strategy was to halt the spread of Communism, first by containing it and then stopping it.

  • Truman Doctrine: When Communists threatened Greece and Turkey, the US allotted $400\$400 million to aid these countries in resisting Communism.

  • Marshall Plan:

    • Secretary of State George Marshall addressed the needs of Europe, particularly Italy, France, and Germany, where destruction was most severe.

    • Financial Aid: The US provided $12.5\$12.5 billion to rebuild Europe in exchange for nations resisting Communism.

    • Soviet Reaction: Annoyed by the proposal, the Soviets walked out of the initial meetings.

    • Examples of reconstruction: Photos of Stuttgart's inner city show a transition from war-torn destruction in 19471947 to rebuilt urban centers by 19551955.

Domestic Politics and the Red Scare

  • Election of 19481948: Truman narrowly won re-election against Republican Thomas Dewey and third-party "Dixiecrat" J. Strom Thurmond, who ran on a pro-segregation platform.

  • Election of 19521952 and 19561956: General Eisenhower (Ike) and running mate Richard Nixon defeated Illinois Senator Adlai Stevenson, winning 4040 out of 4848 states.

  • HUAC: The House Un-American Activities Committee, created in 19381938, gained notoriety in the 19501950s hunting for communists.

  • McCarthyism:

    • Joseph McCarthy, a Senator from Wisconsin, claimed to have a list of 205205 communists working in the State Department.

    • McCarthy used unfounded accusations to ruin careers, attacking Hollywood in public hearings and barring actors, writers, and directors from work.

    • The Downfall of McCarthy: McCarthy was exposed as a bully during televised hearings. When he accused the U.S. Army of containing communists, Eisenhower fought back, effectively ending McCarthy's influence.

The Korean War and the Space Race

  • The Korean War:

    • Following WWII, the USSR occupied Korea above the 38th38^{th} parallel and the US below it.

    • After both powers withdrew, North Korea invaded the South on June 2525, 1950**.\n - The war prompted the expansion of the military budget via **NSC-68**.\n - The conflict ended with an armistice, maintaining a divided Korea at the demarcation line.\n- **The Space Race**:\n - Russia launched **Sputnik**, the first unmanned satellite, in 1957. It could be heard beeping as it passed radio transmitters.\n - **National Defense and Education Act (1958)**: The US response to Sputnik, providing money to improve science and math education.\n - **NASA**: Incorporated in 1958 to push American science forward.\n- **Castro in Cuba**: **Fidel Castro** overthrew dictator **Fulgencio Batista** and established a Communist government. This led to the seizure of American property and an embargo.\n\n# Popular Culture of the 1950s\n\n- **Science Fiction**: Became a major obsession due to the excitement and fear surrounding the space race.\n- **Fads**: Included **poodle skirts**, **phone booth stuffing**, **frisbees**, and **3-D movies**.\n- **The Rise of Rock and Roll**:\n - Emerged in the 1950s as a mix of jazz, blues, and folk influences.\n - Characterized by heavy guitars, drums, and danceable beats.\n - Key Artists: **Buddy Holly**, **Chuck Berry**, and **Jerry Lee Lewis**.\n\n# The Civil Rights Movement: Early Milestones\n\n- **Jackie Robinson (1947)**: Broke the color barrier in Major League Baseball when signed by Brooklyn Dodgers GM **Branch Rickey**.\n- **Military Desegregation (1948)∗∗:PresidentTrumanissued∗∗ExecutiveOrder)**: President Truman issued **Executive Order9981** to desegregate the Armed Forces. The Korean War was the first to feature integrated troops.\n- **Brown v. BOE, Topeka, KS (1954)**:\n - **Linda Brown** was barred from an all-white school.\n - NAACP lawyer **Thurgood Marshall** argued the case.\n - The Supreme Court declared **"Separate but Equal"** unconstitutional, overturning the 1898 **Plessy v. Ferguson** decision.\n - The Court ordered desegregation "with all due haste."\n- **Emmett Till (1955)**: His murder served as a catalyst for the movement.\n- **Montgomery Bus Boycott (12/1955 - 12/1956)**:\n - Sparked by the arrest of **Rosa Parks** for refusing to give her seat to a white man.\n - Organized through the **Montgomery Improvement Association (MIA)**.\n - **Martin Luther King, Jr.** rose to prominence here, using the "Power of the Pulpit."\n- **The Little Rock Nine (1957)**:\n - Governor **Orval Faubus** of Arkansas used the National Guard to block nine African-American students from **Little Rock Central High School**.\n - Eisenhower sent the **U.S. Army** to escort students to class.\n - Violence led the School Board to fire 44teachersandeventuallyclosetheschoolforayearinteachers and eventually close the school for a year in1958.\n\n# Federalizing Movement Activities\n\n- **SNCC (1960)**: The **Student Non-Violent Coordinating Committee** utilized college campuses for non-violent civil disobedience, influenced by **Gandhi**.\n- **Greensboro Sit-ins (1960)**: North Carolina A&T students engaged in peaceful sit-ins at **Woolworth's** lunch counters.\n- **Nashville Sit-ins**: Protestors faced physical abuse and arrests. Hundreds of students chose 30 days in jail over paying a fine.\n- **Freedom Rides (1961)**:\n - Black and white students rode buses together to end cross-country bus segregation.\n - Riders were attacked by mobs while local police often watched. \n - President **Kennedy** assigned **Federal Marshals** to the buses, making attacks a Federal crime.\n- **James Meredith (1962)∗∗:AnAirForceveteranwhointegratedthe∗∗UniversityofMississippi∗∗.Hewasinitiallyturnedawaybutlateradmittedwiththehelpofover)**: An Air Force veteran who integrated the **University of Mississippi**. He was initially turned away but later admitted with the help of over300 Federal Marshals. Meredith was later shot during a march in Mississippi but survived to finish the march with MLK.\n\n# Peak and Transition of the Civil Rights Movement\n\n- **Birmingham (1963)**:\n - Peaceful marchers were attacked with dogs and high-pressure hoses under Police Chief **Eugene "Bull" Connor**.\n - King was imprisoned and wrote his **"Letter From a Birmingham Jail."**\n - The **16^{th} Avenue Baptist Church** was bombed, killing four girls: **Addie Mae Collins**, **Carole Robertson**, **Cynthia Wesley**, and **Denise McNair**. The city was nicknamed "Bombingham."\n- **March on Washington (1963)∗∗:Approximately)**: Approximately200,000 marchers gathered for King's **"I have a dream..."** speech.\n- **Legislative Wins**:\n - **Civil Rights Act (1964)**: Provided access to public facilities, ensured job equality, and sped up school desegregation.\n - **Voting Rights Act (1965)∗∗:Removedpolltaxesandliteracytests,adding)**: Removed poll taxes and literacy tests, adding2 million eligible voters in the South.\n- **Shift Toward Violence (1965-1968)**:\n - Riots occurred in over 60cities,including∗∗Watts(LosAngeles)∗∗,∗∗Detroit∗∗,and∗∗Newark∗∗,leavingnearlycities, including **Watts (Los Angeles)**, **Detroit**, and **Newark**, leaving nearly100 dead.\n - **Malcolm X** founded the **Black Muslim Mosque, Inc.** and preached violence as an alternative to King's slow legislative pace.\n- **The Black Panthers (1966-1972)**: Founded by **Huey Newton** and **Bobby Seale**, involving **Stokely Carmichael**. While known for police confrontations, they also ran free breakfast/lunch programs and health care initiatives in **Oakland**.\n- **MLK Assassination (1968)**: King was shot on a motel balcony in **Memphis, Tennessee** by **James Earl Ray**. The day before, he delivered the **"Promised Land"** speech.\n\n# The 1960s: Politics and Foreign Policy\n\n- **Election of 1960**: Democrats **John F. Kennedy** and **Lyndon B. Johnson** defeated Richard Nixon. The election was influenced by a televised debate where Kennedy's youth was evident.\n- **Camelot**: The term used by the media to describe the Kennedy White House.\n- **JFK and the FBI**: Kennedy and his brother **Robert Kennedy** (RFK) pushed the FBI to focus on Civil Rights and organized crime, causing friction with Director **J. Edgar Hoover**.\n- **Cold War Incidents**:\n - **Berlin Wall ( 1961)**: Built by the Soviets under **Khrushchev** to stop emigration.\n - **Bay of Pigs (1961)**: A failed CIA-backed invasion of Cuba by exiles.\n - **Cuban Missile Crisis (10/1962)**: The US and USSR reached the brink of war over missiles in Cuba. A deal was made to remove Soviet missiles from Cuba and US missiles from **Turkey**.\n- **JFK Assassination (11/22/1963)**: Kennedy was shot in a motorcade in Dallas. **Lee Harvey Oswald** was identified as the shooter from the **Texas School Book Depository**. Oswald was later shot and killed by **Jack Ruby**.\n- **The Great Society**: LBJ's domestic programs included the **War on Poverty**, aid to education, **Medicare**, and the creation of **HUD** (Housing and Urban Development).\n- **Vietnam Escalation**: LBJ scaled up troop commitments following an attack on a **PT Boat**. This became a proxy war between Communist North and Non-Communist South.\n\n# Cultural Movements and 1968\n\n- **Election of 1968**: Robert Kennedy was a frontrunner for the Democrats before his assassination. Republicans ran Richard Nixon and **Spiro Agnew**.\n- **RFK Assassinations**:\n - **Page 65Record∗∗:RobertKennedyassassinatedin∗∗Chicago∗∗on∗∗JuneRecord**: Robert Kennedy assassinated in **Chicago** on **June5,,1968.

    • Page 8686 Record: Bobby Kennedy shot in Los Angeles at a hotel by Sirhan Sirhan, an Arab who disagreed with RFK's policy on Israel.

  • Youth Culture: Centered in Berkeley and San Francisco, "hippies" or "flower children" promoted anti-war and peace movements.

    • Music: Grateful Dead, Creedence Clearwater Revival, Jimi Hendrix, Jefferson Airplane.

    • Drugs: LSD, psychedelic drugs, and marijuana.

  • Woodstock (08/15−18,196908/15-18, 1969): Held in Bethel, NY on Max Yasgur's land. Originally a ticketed event, it became a "Free Concert" after day one.

  • Women’s Movement: Sought gender equality and pushed for the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which passed Congress but failed state ratification.

  • Vatican II (1962−19651962-1965): Four sessions in Rome reformed the Catholic Church, changing the Mass from Latin to the vernacular and facing the altar toward people.

  • Anti-War Movement: Highlighted by the Kent State shooting (where 44 students were killed by National Guardsmen) and the Jackson State shooting (22 killed 1010 days later).