Honors Anatomy & Physiology Final Study Guide - Semester 1 Review

SECTION A: INTRODUCTION TO ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

  • Organ Systems and Descriptions:

    • Nervous System: Stimulates muscles to contract and interprets information from sensory units. The nervous system includes the brain, spinal cord, and nerves. Its primary function is to regulate bodily functions and responses.

    • Respiratory System: Exchange of gases between the atmosphere and the blood. Key components include the lungs, trachea, and diaphragm. This system is vital for oxygen intake and carbon dioxide removal.

    • Integumentary System: Provides an outer covering of the body. Composed of the skin, hair, and nails, it protects against external damage and regulates temperature.

    • Digestive System: Converts food molecules into forms that are absorbed. Organs such as the stomach, intestines, liver, and pancreas break down food for energy and nutrient absorption.

    • Muscular System: Maintains posture, movement, and generates most body heat. Moves bones at the joints. Includes skeletal muscles, smooth muscles, and cardiac muscle, each serving different functions.

    • Endocrine System: Main system that secretes regulating hormones. Glands like the pituitary, thyroid, and adrenal glands produce hormones that regulate various bodily functions.

  • Organ Locations within Cavities:

    • Heart: Thoracic cavity. The thoracic cavity protects the heart and lungs.

    • Stomach: Abdominal cavity. The abdominal cavity houses the stomach, intestines, liver, and other digestive organs.

    • Urinary Bladder: Pelvic cavity. The pelvic cavity contains the urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum.

    • Brain: Cranial cavity. The cranial cavity protects the brain and is formed by the skull.

    • Spleen: Abdominal cavity. The spleen filters blood and helps fight infections.

    • Ovaries: Pelvic cavity. The ovaries are the female reproductive organs that produce eggs and hormones.

    • Lungs: Thoracic cavity. The lungs facilitate gas exchange in the thoracic cavity.

  • Anatomical Terminology:

    • Midsagittal: Divides the body into equal left and right halves. This plane is crucial for symmetrical analysis.

    • Proximal: The elbow is proximal in relation to the hand. Closer to the point of attachment or origin.

    • Superior: The nose is superior in relation to the mouth. Indicates a position above or higher.

    • Transverse: Divides the body into superior and inferior sections. Also known as the horizontal plane.

    • Anterior: The buccal portion of the body is on the anterior surface. Refers to the front of the body.

    • Frontal/Coronal: Plane that divides the body into ventral and dorsal halves. Divides the body into front and back portions.

    • Medial: The nose is medial in relation to the ears. Closer to the midline of the body.

    • Arms & Legs: Proximal and distal are reference points that only deal with the arms and legs. Essential for limb-specific descriptions.

    • Anatomy: The study of structure. Understanding the physical organization of the body.

    • Physiology: The study of function. How the body's structures work and interact.

    • Homeostasis: Maintaining a constant internal environment. Crucial for the body's stability and function. Involves temperature, pHpH, and fluid balance.

    • Feedback (Negative): What occurs when an effector reduces the original stimulus. Common mechanism to maintain stability.

    • Feedback (Positive): What occurs when an effector enhances the original stimulus. Less common and often involved in specific processes like childbirth.

  • Structural Levels of Organization:

    • Atoms & Molecules → Organelles + Cells & Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organism

  • Anatomical Views:

    • Figure A is a posterior/dorsal view of the body. Viewing the body from the back.

    • Figure B is an anterior/ventral view of the body. Viewing the body from the front.

  • Anatomical Positions (Figure A):

    • Occipital

    • Gluteal

    • Cervical

    • Scapular

    • Popliteal

    • Vertebral

    • Cubital

    • Femoral

  • Anatomical Positions (Figure B):

    • Femoral

    • Pectoral

    • Digital

    • Palmar

    • Inguinal

    • Abdominal

    • Antebrachial

    • Patellar

SECTION B: CANCER

  • Cancer-Related Terms:

    • Cell Cycle: The cellular process that goes out of control in cancer cells. Includes phases like G1, S, G2, and M, each with specific functions.

    • DNA: Cancer is formed when the DNADNA mutates. Mutations can be caused by various factors like radiation, chemicals, and viruses.

    • Checkpoints: There are 3 of them in the cell cycle. They are points which instructs the continuation of the cell cycle. These checkpoints (G1, G2, and M) ensure proper cell division and DNADNA replication.

    • Benign Tumor: Name of a local abnormal growth of a tissue that does not become cancerous. It remains localized and does not invade surrounding tissues.

    • Primary: Skin cancer in the skin would be primary. The original site of cancer development.

    • Secondary: Cancerous skin cells travel through the blood to bone tissue. The cancer forms there. This new cancer would be secondary, indicating it spread from the primary site.

    • Metastasis: The process where cancer cells spread to other parts of the body. Cancer cells can travel through the bloodstream or lymphatic system.

    • Malignant: Name of a cancer that invades and destroys neighboring tissues. It has the potential to spread and cause significant harm.

    • Blood: All actively growing cancers need a supply of blood to obtain nutrition and remove waste materials. Angiogenesis is the formation of new blood vessels to support cancer growth.

SECTION C: HISTOLOGY

  • Tissue Types and Descriptions:

    • Connective Tissue: Tissue type which contains a lot of intercellular (extracellular matrix) material called ground substance. Provides support, connection, and separation of different tissues and organs.

    • Goblet Cells: Specialized cells that secrete mucus. Commonly found in the respiratory and digestive tracts.

    • Nervous Tissue: Transmit impulses to organs or other neurons. Includes neurons and glial cells, which are essential for communication and support.

    • Cardiac Muscle: Cells are striated, branched, and contain intercalated discs. Found exclusively in the heart, responsible for pumping blood.

    • Epithelial Tissue: Tissue type which is classified by the shapes of cells and number of cell layers. Covers surfaces for protection, secretion, and absorption.

    • Dense Fibrous Connective Tissue: Tissue type that produces tendons and ligaments. Provides strong connections between muscles and bones (tendons) and between bones (ligaments).

    • Blood (Connective Tissue): Transports O2O_2 throughout the body. Includes red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets, and plasma.

    • Bone (Connective Tissue): Tissue which contains osteocytes. Provides structure and support to the body.

    • Connective Tissue: Tissue type which is classified by the type of intercellular substance produced. Includes cartilage, bone, blood, and adipose tissue.

    • Stratified Epithelium: Name for epithelial tissue composed of more than one layer. Provides protection in areas subject to abrasion.

    • Skeletal Muscle: Cell type that is responsible for voluntary movement of body parts. Attached to bones and controlled by conscious effort.

    • Stratified Squamous Epithelium: Found on the lining of mouth and outside skin. Provides a protective barrier against abrasion and infection.

    • Adipose (Connective Tissue): Stores fat in the form of triglycerides. Provides insulation, protection, and energy storage.

    • Skeletal Muscle: This muscle tissue contains striations and is multinucleated. Allows for powerful, voluntary movements.

    • Smooth Muscle: Cell type that is involved in the contraction of blood vessels and visceral organs. Found in the walls of internal organs and blood vessels.

    • Hyaline Cartilage: Connective tissue type found at the ends of long bones. Reduces friction and provides support in joints.

    • Simple Squamous Epithelium: Form the endothelium of blood vessels; diffusion specialists; flat cells. Allows for efficient gas exchange and filtration.

    • Cardiac, Smooth Muscle: The two involuntary muscle tissues. Controlled by the autonomic nervous system.

    • Serous Membrane: This general type of membrane forms the outside lining of the organs and body cavities. Cells form a slippery substance to prevent friction. Reduces friction between organs and body cavities.

    • Osteon: Basic unit of compact bone tissue. Includes a central canal, lamellae, and osteocytes.

    • Osteocytes: Canaliculi help these cells (which are trapped) to get food and oxygen. Mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix.

    • Osteocyte: Name of a bone cell.

    • Chondrocyte: Name of a cartilage cell.

    • Neuroglia: Cells that help out neurons. Support, protect, and nourish neurons.

    • E.C. Matrix: General name for the material between the cells in connective tissue. Composed of ground substance and fibers.

    • Transitional Epithelium: Named based on its function, not the shape of cells or the number of layers.

  • Muscle Types and Descriptions:

    • Cardiac: Contains intercalated discs, striated, found in the heart

    • Skeletal & Cardiac: Striated muscle types.

    • Skeletal: Voluntary contraction.

    • Smooth & Cardiac: Found in the heart. Each cell has one nucleus.

    • Smooth: Cells are spindle shaped.

  • Connective Tissues:

    • Tendons connect muscle to bone, whereas ligaments connect bone to bone.

  • Muscle Property:

    • Muscle tissue has the ability to contract.

SECTION D: INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

  • Functions of the Integumentary System:

    • Protection (Stratum corneum)

    • Heat regulation (Eccrine sweat glands & Stratum corneum)

    • Sensation (Cutaneous receptors)

  • Layers of the Skin:

    • Dermis: Layer that contains the majority of collagenous and elastin fibers. Majority of blood vessels are found in this layer. Nerve fibers are found throughout this layer.

    • Epidermis: Contains the stratum germinativum also called the stratum basale. Contains melanocytes

    • Epidermis and Dermis: Basement membrane separates these two layers.

    • Subcutaneous: Contains adipose tissue.

  • Comparison of Stratum Basale and Stratum Corneum:

    • Stratum Basale: Dividing, contains nucleus, cuboidal in shape, pigmented

    • Stratum Corneum: Flat, dead, keratinized, no organelles

  • Glands in the Dermal Layer:

    • Sebaceous (oil)

    • Eccrine (sweat; effective cooling)

    • Apocrine (sweat of axillary & groin regions)

  • Skin Pigmentation:

    • Cell Type: Melanocytes

    • Pigment Produced: Melanin

  • Processes in the Epidermis:

    • During the process of melanization the cells of the epidermis take up melanin whereas in the process of keratinization the cells produce Keratin

SECTION E: SKELETAL SYSTEM

  • Bone Types:

    • Red and Yellow bone marrow.

    • Compact and Spongy bone.

  • Long Bone Structures:

    • Epiphyses: Enlarged ends of long bones.

    • Diaphysis: Bone shaft composed of compact bone.

    • Periosteum: Outer fibrous layer of bone for muscle attachment.

    • Medullary Cavity: Fat filled cavity in long bones.

    • Osteon: Functional unit of structure of compact bone.

    • Articular Cartilage: Name of the connective tissue lining at ends of the epiphysis.

    • Haversian Canal: Component of an osteon that contains blood vessels.

    • Epiphyseal Plate: Region where cartilage cells divide; responsible for longitudinal bone growth.

  • Bone Marrow:

    • Red Bone Marrow: Synthesizes blood cells.

  • Bone Structure and Function:

    • Spongy bone is found along the lines of stress.

    • Compact bone is oriented along the long axis.

  • Bone Cells:

    • Osteoblast: Cell that creates bone matrix.

    • Osteoclast: Cell that breaks down bone matrix.

  • Bone Matrix:

    • The major components of bone intercellular (extracellular) matrix is collagen (a protein) and inorganic salts of calcium and Phosphorous.

SECTION F: ARTICULATION SYSTEM

  • Motions:

    • Extension: Increasing the angle between two body parts. Example: Straightening the arm at the elbow.

    • Inversion: Movement of the sole of the foot inward at the ankle. Example: Turning the sole of the foot towards the midline.

    • Abduction: Movement of a limb away from the midline of the body. Example: Raising the arm to the side.

    • Adduction: Movement of a limb toward the midline of the body. Example: Lowering the arm to the side.

    • Hyperextension: Excessive extension of a body part beyond its normal range. Example: Bending the head backwards.

    • Dorsiflexion: Bending the foot upward at the ankle. Example: Lifting the toes towards the shin.

    • Pronation: Rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces downwards. Example: Turning the hand palm-down.

    • Supination: Rotation of the forearm so that the palm faces upwards. Example: Turning the hand palm-up.

    • Rotation: Movement around a longitudinal axis. Example: Twisting the head from side to side.

    • Circumduction: Circular movement of a limb or digit. Example: Moving the arm in a circle.

  • Knee Joint Structures:

    • Femur

    • Quadriceps Tendon

    • Patella

    • Articular Cartilage

    • Medial Meniscus

    • Medial Collateral Ligament

    • Patellar Ligament

    • Tibia

  • Types of Joints Based on Function:

    • Synarthrotic: Immovable (e.g., suture, synchondrosis, gomphosis)

    • Amphiarthrotic: Partially movable (e.g., pubic symphysis, syndesmosis)

    • Diarthrotic: Freely movable (synovial joints)

  • Joint Classifications:

    • Fibrous: Suture, Syndesmosis, Gomphosis

    • Cartilaginous: Symphysis

    • Synovial: Knee

  • Joint Locations:

    • Suture: Between parietal bones

    • Syndesmosis: Distal portion of tibia and fibula

    • Synovial: Knee, hip, elbow, etc.

    • Symphysis: Interpubic

    • Gomphosis: Tooth & mandible

SECTION G: MUSCULAR SYSTEM

  • Muscle Structures:

    • Epimysium

    • Perimysium

    • Endomysium

    • Fascicle

    • Myofiber

  • Muscle Tissue Types:

    • Skeletal:

      • Function: Movement, heat production.

      • Characteristic: Striated, voluntary, multinucleated.

      • Location: Attached to bones.

    • Cardiac:

      • Function: Propel blood.

      • Characteristic: Striated, involuntary, uninucleated, intercalated discs.

      • Location: Makes up heart.

    • Smooth:

      • Function: Propel substances.

      • Characteristic: Non-striated, involuntary, uninucleated.

      • Location: Visceral organs.

  • Neuromuscular Junction:

    • Vesicles: Found within the nerve end plate and contains the neurotransmitter

    • Ca2+Ca^{2+}: Ion that enters the nerve end plate to cause vesicles to move

    • Synaptic Cleft (NMJ): Name of the gap between the nerve end plate and sarcolemma

    • Acetylcholine: Neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction.

    • Cholinesterase: Breaks down the neurotransmitter molecule.

    • Receptor: Found in the sarcolemma and is the binding site for neurotransmitter

  • Muscle Cell Contraction:

    • Contraction:

      • Calcium binds to troponin.

      • An impulse travels along the sarcolemma.

      • Myosin heads interact with actin.

      • H Zone disappears.

      • Actin molecules slide toward the middle of the sarcomere.

    • Relaxation:

      • Calcium is reabsorbed into the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

      • Z line get further apart.

  • Contraction Conditions

    • Anaerobic conditions:

      • Build up of lactic acid occurs.

      • Oxygen debt takes place.

         * Availability of ATP is very low.

      • Muscle fatigue occurs early.

      • Sets in when a runner sprints at the end of a race.

    • Aerobic conditions:

      • Lasts for a longer period of time when cells contain lots of myoglobin.

      • Continuous exercise below the lactic acid threshold.

      • Oxygen is constantly available.