internal class differences in achievement

These are processes and experiences that occur inside the school, impacting achievement differently across social classes.

Labelling and Teacher Expectations

Teachers often judge pupils based on their social class, leading to labelling and differential treatment.

Key Ideas:

• Becker (1971): Teachers view middle-class students as the ‘ideal pupil’ and working-class pupils as less capable.

• Labelling: Once labelled as ‘troublemakers’ or ‘low ability,’ students may internalise these labels.

• Self-Fulfilling Prophecy:

  • Students act according to the label they are given.

  • Positive labels → Higher expectations → Improved performance.

  • Negative labels → Lower expectations → Decline in performance.

Impact:

• Working-class students may underperform due to low teacher expectation

Streaming, Setting, and Banding

Grouping students by perceived ability can impact confidence and achievement.

Key Ideas:

• Streaming: Students are placed in the same group for all subjects based on ability.

• Setting: Students are placed in different groups for different subjects.

• Banding: A broader categorisation where students are grouped into higher and lower bands.

impact:

• Working-class pupils are more likely to be placed in lower streams or sets, limiting their educational opportunities.

• Lower sets → Lower expectations → Limited curriculum → Less chance of success.

Pupil Subcultures (Pro and Anti-School Subcultures)

pupils react to labelling and streaming by forming subcultures, which influence their achievement.

Key Ideas:

• Lacey (1970) – Differentiation and Polarisation:

  • Differentiation: Teachers categorise pupils based on perceived ability and behaviour.

  • Polarisation: Pupils respond by moving to opposing subcultures – pro-school (accepting values) or anti-school (rejecting values).

• Pro-School Subculture:

  • Typically middle-class students who conform to school rules.

• Anti-School Subculture:

  • Typically working-class students who reject school values.

  • Willis (1977) – ‘Lads’ rejected school norms and prepared themselves for manual labour jobs.

Impact:

• Anti-school subcultures can lead to disruptive behaviour and low achievement.

The Hidden Curriculum

Unwritten rules, values, and norms taught in school that reinforce class inequalities.

Key Ideas:

• Bowles and Gintis (1976) – Hidden curriculum prepares working-class pupils for obedience in low-paid, manual jobs.

• Teaches punctuality, hierarchy, and conformity, mirroring the workplace.

Impact:

• Reinforces existing class divisions and limits opportunities for working-class students.