Study Notes on Culture by Werner Delanoy
1. What Is Culture?
1.1 Introduction
Complexity of the Term "Culture":
Scholars find culture difficult to define.
Williams (1984) describes it as one of the three most complicated words in the English language, attributing this complexity to:
Intricate historical development across languages.
Multiple variations of use.
Eagleton (2016) refers to culture as a multifaceted concept, complicating unified definitions.
Hall (1997a) states it is challenging to define due to various interpretations.
Scholarly Approaches to Culture:
Despite complexity, scholars attempt to track the term’s histories and meanings.
The explosion of culture-related research since the 1970s has resulted in diverse interdisciplinary perspectives.
Caveats:
Clifford (1986) notes that cultures change rapidly.
Capturing the dynamics of culture remains selective and limited.
There is a need for clarity regarding the term to understand its usage in both past and current debates.
Article Objective:
Clarify different meanings of the term "culture" and invite discussion on its complex nature.
1.2 Meanings of ‘Culture’: From the Roman colere to the Linguistic Turn
Historical Origin:
Scholars refer to the Latin verb colere (Ort 2003, Posner 2003, Williams 1984) as the basis for the modern term "culture".
The meanings of colere are:
Tending of natural growth (husbandry, agriculture).
Habitation in an area (derivative term: colony).
Religious worship (cultus deorum).
Spiritual, artistic, and intellectual education (Cicero’s cultura animi, Greek paideia).
Medieval and Renaissance Perspectives:
In the Middle Ages, meanings narrowed to husbandry and religious worship.
Renaissance emphasizes secular human development, linking to self-realization and collective growth.
Culture viewed as a process toward human perfection; education seen as a means to tame nature’s rawness.
Romanticism Influence:
Industrialization led to a revival of culture as a pre-industrial state counteracting the perceived soullessness of industrial civilization (Eagleton, 2016).
Culture and civilization seen as opposites, with culture prioritized (Ort, 2003).
Herder's Contributions:
Johann Gottfried Herder critiques colonialism and asserts cultural plurality, highlighting distinct cultural characteristics (Herder, 1989).
Cultural development viewed as diverse rather than unilinear.
Advocates for folk culture to nurture national health (Herder, 1989).
Critiques of Herder:
Herder's notion of cultures as homogeneous entities faces criticism (Eagleton, 2016; Welsch, 2017).
Acknowledged, however, that European culture has composite nature (Herder, 1989).
He values intuition and faith over strict rationalism contrary to Cartesian views (Eagleton, 2016; Herder, 1989).
Anthropological Perspectives:
Early anthropology aligned with the idea of European superiority (Tylor, 1903; Morgan, 2013).
Colonial power entangled with 19th-century anthropology (Eagleton, 2016; Piller, 2011).
Cultural Meanings in the 19th Century:
Arnold (1996) defines culture as 'the best which has been thought and said'.
High culture serves to refine impulses and unite conflicting societies (Eagleton, 2016).
Whitman’s concept of e pluribus unum acknowledges diversity while advocating for unity (Erkilla, 1989).
Marx considers culture a secondary phenomenon, a superstructure dependent on economic base (Marx, 1867).
1.3 Meanings of ‘Culture’: From the Linguistic Turn to the Present Day
Contemporary Use of Culture (Post-1970):
The term has proliferated in various contexts.
Used by the far right to mask racism under cultural preservation arguments.
Disadvantaged groups use culture for identity advocacy (e.g., women, LGBTQ).
In business, intercultural training focuses on behavioral norms impacting profits.
A culture industry has emerged, entwined with economic interests and identity politics.