Grade 11 History Student Textbook Notes

UNIT ONE: HISTORY, HISTORIOGRAPHY, AND HUMAN EVOLUTION

1.1. History and Historiography

• Definitions and Nature of History
      * History is a branch of knowledge dealing with all past human thoughts, sayings, and deeds.
      * It is an organized and critical study based on the interpretation of evidence.
      * The term originates from the Greek word istoria (historia), meaning "inquiry" or "knowledge acquired by investigation."
      * It covers both pre-history (before writing around $4000\,B.C.$) and history proper.
      * As a discipline, it seeks to answer questions: What happened? When? How? Why? And what were the consequences?
      * It emphasizes both change and continuity over time.

• History vs. Other Sciences
      * Similarities: Both use systematic methods, rigorous checks of evidence, and seek to solve social problems or discover new knowledge.
      * Differences: Natural sciences study the physical world and use controlled experiments; history studies human society and cannot conduct experiments. Natural scientists report neutrally, while historians often make value judgments.

• Historiography
      * Refers to the "history of historical writing" and the techniques of research/documentation.
      * Herodotus (ca. $484-425\,B.C.$): Known as the "Father of History"; wrote about the Greco-Persian Wars.
      * Thucydides (ca. $455-400\,B.C.$): Wrote accurately and chronologically about the Peloponnesian War.
      * Leopold von Ranke (1795-1886): A German historian considered the "Father of Modern Historiography" for establishing academic history foundations.

• Key Elements in Historical Study
      * Sources: Essential evidence; history cannot be written without them.
      * Interpretation: Understanding the meaning and originality of evidence to avoid misrepresentation.
      * Objectivity: Presenting facts without bias; though true objectivity is impossible, accuracy is the duty of the historian.
      * Historical Methods: Guidelines for using primary sources to create accounts.

• Ethiopian Historiography
      * Has an indigenous tradition dating back to the 14th century (chroniclers and hagiographers).
      * Job Ludolf (1624-1704): A German historian who founded Ethiopian studies in Europe and published the first modern history of Ethiopia in 1684.
      * Institute of Ethiopian Studies (IES): Established in 1963 at Haile Sellassie I University; shifted focus from strictly northern Ethiopian history to a more inclusive national approach.
      * Historical Imbalances: Historically, more records existed for the north due to written language and external mentions (Greek, Roman, Arab). The south lacked written records and scholars were slow to utilize oral traditions until the 1960s.

• Sources of History
      * Primary Sources: Original materials from the period (monuments, coins, letters, eyewitness accounts).
      * Secondary Sources: Reconstructions based on primary sources (history books, hearsay).
      * Source Criticism: The process of establishing the authenticity and meaning of evidence.

• Periodization
      * Definition: Dividing the past into shorter, chronological periods.
      * Approaches:
          1. Human Behavior: Savagery ($2.5\,million\,BP-8,000\,BP$), Barbarous ($8,000-5,000\,BP$), Civilization ($5,000\,BP-Present$).
          2. Tool Making: Stone Age ($2.5\,million-5,000\,BP$), Bronze Age ($5,000-4,000\,BP$), Iron Age ($4,000\,BP-Present$).
          3. Economic Life: Hunting/Gathering ($Up\,to\,8,000\,BP$), Farming/Husbandry ($8,000\,BP-1750\,A.D.$), Industry ($1750-Present$).
      * Ethiopian Periods: Ancient ($1000\,B.C.-1270\,A.D.$), Medieval ($1270-1855\,A.D.$), Modern ($1855-Present$).

1.2. Origin of Human Beings

• Theories of Origin
      * Creationist View: Religious belief that life and humans were created by a supernatural act in complete physical structure.
      * Scientific View (Evolution): Based on the theory that simple life forms developed into complex ones over millions of years.
      * Charles Darwin: Published Origin of Species by Natural Selection (1859), providing the theoretical foundation for evolution.

• Stages of Human Evolution
      * Hominids: Biological family including humans and human-like creatures with enlarged brains and bipedalism (upright walking). Humans, gorillas, and chimpanzees share a common ancestor from $5-8\,million$ years ago.
      * Australopithecines (the "Southern Ape"): Evolved in Africa ~$6\,million$ years ago. Traits: Small canine teeth and bipedalism. Brain size: $390-550\,cc$.
          * Australopithecus afarensis: (found at Hadar, Ethiopia, 1974) lived ~$3.9-2.9\,million\,BP$.
      * Genus Homo: Originated ~$2.5\,million\,BP$.
          * Homo habilis (handy human): Eastern/Southern Africa, ~$2\,million\,BP$. Creators of Oldowan tools (flakes and cores).
          * Homo erectus (upright human): ~$1.8-1.7\,million\,BP$. First to migrate out of Africa. Mastered fire. Creators of Acheulian hand axes.
          * Homo sapiens: Archaic version ($600k-300k\,BP$); Modern version ($at\,least\,100k\,BP$). Oldest modern sites in Ethiopia (Omo Basin/Kibish and Porc Epic).

• Stone Age Cultural Stages
      * Paleolithic (Old Stone Age): $2.5\,million\,BP\,to\,8,000\,BP$. Included discovery of fire, cave living, and hunting-gathering.
          * Lower Paleolithic: Oldowan and Acheulean technology.
          * Middle Paleolithic: Development of flake technology (spear points).
          * Upper Paleolithic: Standardized blades and microliths.
      * Neolithic Revolution (New Stone Age): ~$11,000$ years ago. The transition from hunting-gathering to food production (domestication of plants and animals). Resulted in sedentary life, surplus food, and social classes.
      * Neolithic in Ethiopia: Evidence from Gobedra near Aksum (~$2500\,B.C.$) and Lake Beseka (~$2nd\,millennium\,B.C.$). Cultivation of teff, noog, and enset.

1.3. The Emergence of States

• Theories of State Formation
      * Divine Right Theory: Priests combined religious and political power, becoming kings regarded as gods' representatives.
      * War Leadership: Permanent war leaders gained loyal followers and emerged as kings.
      * Trade: Local chiefs collected tolls to protect routes, eventually becoming wealthy enough to establish permanent power.
      * Oriental Despotism: Need for strong power to organize large-scale irrigation and flood control (e.g., Nile in Egypt, Tigris-Euphrates in Mesopotamia).

• Main Features of Early States
      * Primarily results of agriculture and surplus food.
      * Division of population into classes (craftsmen, soldiers, officials).
      * Urbanization and literacy (civilization).
      * Social hierarchy based on birth, often viewed as god-given.

UNIT TWO: MAJOR SPOTS OF ANCIENT WORLD CIVILIZATIONS

2.1. Ancient Civilizations of Africa

• Ancient Egypt
      * "The Gift of the Nile": The river provided water and fertile soil (silt) from the Ethiopian highlands.
      * Unity: King Menes unified Upper and Lower Egypt in ~$3100\,B.C.$ with the capital at Memphis.
      * Structure: Divided into Old, Middle, and New Kingdoms. Ruled by 31 indigenous dynasties. Pharaohs were seen as both human and divine.
      * Achievements: Hieroglyphic writing, pyramids (Great Pyramid at Giza), medicine, and geometry. Hatshepsut (female pharaoh) expanded trade along the Red Sea.

• Kush-Meroe
      * Located in present-day Sudan. Influenced by Egyptian art, architecture, and religion.
      * Napata Period: Kushite King Piankhi conquered Egypt in $751\,B.C.$ (25th Dynasty).
      * Meroe Period (~$590\,B.C.$): New capital focused on iron smelting and trade (gold, ivory, ebony). Fell to Aksumite King Ezana in the 4th century $A.D.$.

2.2. Civilizations in Asia

• Mesopotamia (Land between the rivers)
      * Sumerians (~$2900\,B.C.$): Invented the Cuneiform writing system (wedge-shaped on clay tablets). Developed mathematics (60 minutes in an hour).
      * Babylon: King Hammurabi ($1792-1750\,B.C.$) created a famous code of laws (eye for an eye).
      * Assyrians: Efficient military power using iron weapons.
      * Persia: Cyrus the Great founded a vast empire. Zoroaster introduced Zoroastrianism (struggle between good Ahura Mazda and evil Ahriman).

• India
      * Indus Valley (~$2500\,B.C.$): Cities like Mohenjo-daro and Harappa showed advanced urban planning and drainage.
      * Hinduism: Developed concepts of the cycle of rebirths and salvation.
      * Buddhism: Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (~$563-483\,B.C.$). Taught the "middle way."
      * Achievements: Invented Arabic numerals (1, 2, 3), the decimal system, and the symbol for zero.

• China
      * Shang Dynasty (~$1700-1122\,B.C.$): Developed Chinese script (logographic) and bronze work.
      * Confucius ($551-479\,B.C.$): Ideology focused on moral character and five cardinal relationships.
      * Legalism: Philosophy practiced by the Qin state, emphasizing strict laws and efficient administration.
      * Achievements: Coal use, porcelain, silk, paper ($150\,A.D.$), printing, and gunpowder.

2.3. Civilizations in Europe

• Ancient Greece (~$2500\,B.C.$)
      * Organized into independent city-states (polis) like Athens and Sparta.
      * Athens: Introduced direct democracy. Center of culture and philosophy (Socrates, Plato, Aristotle), mathematics, and medicine (Hippocratic Oath).
      * Hellenistic Age: Period from the death of Alexander the Great ($323\,B.C.$) where Greek culture blended with Asian and African cultures.

• Ancient Rome
      * Settled by Latins and later controlled by Etruscans. Established a Republic in $509\,B.C.$.
      * Society: Divided into Patricians (nobles) and Plebeians (common folks). Treated slaves harshly (Spartacus revolt, $73-71\,B.C.$).
      * Pax Romana: 200-year period of stability starting with Augustus Caesar ($27\,B.C.$).
      * Achievements: Roman law, Latin alphabet, engineering (roads, aqueducts, Colosseum).
      * Collapse: West Roman Empire collapsed in $476\,A.D.$; East (Byzantine) survived until 1453.

2.4. Civilizations in Latin America

• The Maya: Flourished in Guatemala/Mexico. Developed raised fields for farming and an accurate $365$-day solar calendar.

• The Aztecs: Warlike people with capital at Tenochtitlan. Built "floating gardens" and practice human sacrifice.

• The Incas: Built a massive empire in the Andes (Ecuador to Chile). Noted for brain surgery, terrace farming, and stone architecture without cement.

2.5. Rise and Spread of Christianity

• Began in Judea among followers of Jesus. Initially persecuted by Rome.

• Legalization: Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan ($313\,A.D.$). Theodosius I made it the official religion ($380-390s\,A.D.$).

• Councils: Council of Nicaea ($325\,A.D.$) established the Holy Trinity doctrine.

• Breakup: Christianity split into Roman Catholic (West) and Orthodox (East) in $1054\,A.D.$.

UNIT THREE: ETHIOPIA AND THE HORN TO THE END OF THE 13TH CENTURY

3.1. Languages, Religions and Peoples

• Language Super-Families
      * Afro-Asiatic: Includes Cushitic (Agaw, Oromo, Somali), Omotic (Wolaita, Kafa), and Semitic (Amharic, Tigrigna, Ge'ez).
      * Nilo-Saharan: Spoken by Anuak, Nuer, Berta.

• Religions
      * Indigenous: Waqefanna (Oromo) worships Waqa; Qallu/Qalliti are religious leaders.
      * Judaism: Tradition claims early presence through the Solomon and Queen of Sheba legend.
      * Christianity: Introduced in the 4th century $A.D.$ via Frumentius to King Ezana.
      * Islam: First Hijira to Aksum ($615\,A.D.$). Later spread via Dahlak and Zeila routes.

3.2. Pre-Aksumite States

• Punt: Trading partner of Ancient Egypt (Hatshepsut's expedition ~$1490\,B.C.$). Exported incense and gold.

• Da'amat ($980-400\,B.C.$): Early state with capital at Yeha. Used Sabean-influenced script and engaged in iron working.

3.3. The Aksumite Kingdom

• Height of power from 1st to 7th century $A.D.$. Port of Adulis facilitated international trade (Rome, India, China).

• Achievements: Issued own coins, built monolithic steles (obelisks), developed modern Geez script.

• Decline: Arab Muslim control of trade routes isolated Aksum, leading to economic and military decline by the 8th century.

3.4. Transition: Zagwe and Solomonic Dynasties

• Zagwe Dynasty (~$1150-1270$): Agaw-based dynasty at Roha (Lalibela). Famous for 11 rock-hewn monolithic churches.

• Restoration of Solomonic Dynasty (1270): Yekuno Amlak overthrew the last Zagwe king, claiming descent from King Solomon to establish legitimacy.

UNIT FOUR: MIDDLE AGES AND EARLY MODERN WORLD ($500\,AD-1789$)

4.1. European Middle Ages

• Dark Ages: Early medieval period ($500-1000$) marked by political fragmentation after Rome's fall.

• Feudalism: Social system where lords gave land (fiefs) to vassals in exchange for loyalty and military service.

• The Church: The central civilizing force; provided structure and preserved learning.

• The Crusades ($1096-1270$): Failed military attempts to reclaim the Holy Land, but increased trade with the East and curiosity about the world.

4.2. Islam and the Ottoman Empire

• Islamic Golden Age ($800-1200$): Advances in algebra, medicine (Ibn Sina/Avicenna), and history (Ibn Khaldun).

• Ottoman Turks: Conquered Constantinople in 1453 (renamed Istanbul). Reached peak under Suleiman the Magnificent. Created Janissaries (elite infantry).

4.3. Age of Exploration and Inception of Globalization

• Need to bypass Ottoman trade monopolies led to sea voyages.

• Vasco da Gama: Found the sea route to India (Cape route).

• Christopher Columbus: Reached the Americas (1492).

• Columbian Exchange: Global transfer of foods, plants, animals, and diseases between Old and New worlds.

4.4. Renaissance and Reformation

• Renaissance ("Rebirth"): Began in Italy; focused on humanism, reason, and realistic art (Da Vinci, Michelangelo).

• Reformation (1517): Martin Luther challenged the Catholic Church, leading to the rise of Protestantism.

4.5. Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

• Science: Copernicus (Heliocentric theory), Newton (Universal Gravitation), Jenner (Smallpox vaccine).

• Enlightenment (Age of Reason): Philosophers like John Locke (Natural Rights) and Montesquieu (Separation of Powers) challenged absolute rule.

UNIT FIVE: PEOPLES AND STATES OF AFRICA TO 1500

5.1. West African Empires

• Ghana (~$4th\,century-1076$): Wealthy through the trans-Saharan gold-salt trade.

• Mali ($1235-mid\,16th\,century$): Founded by Sundiata. Reached peak under Mansa Musa (famous pilgrimage to Mecca, 1324).

• Songhai ($1460s-1591$): Largest West African empire. Center of Islamic learning at Timbuktu.

5.2. East and South-Central Africa

• Swahili Coast: Maritime city-states (Kilwa, Mombasa, Mogadishu) with a blend of Arab, Persian, and Bantu cultures.

• Great Zimbabwe (~$900-1500$): Known for massive stone ruins; economy based on gold mining and cattle trade.

UNIT SIX: AFRICA AND THE OUTSIDE WORLD ($1500-1880s$)

6.1. States and Slave Trade

• Zulu Kingdom: Rose to power under Shaka Zulu in the early 19th century.

• Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade: Middle phase was the "Triangular Trade" (European goods to Africa; slaves to Americas; raw materials to Europe).

• Legitimate Trade: 19th-century shift to raw materials (palm oil, groundnuts) after the abolition of the slave trade.

UNIT SEVEN: STATES, POPULATION MOVEMENTS AND INTERACTIONS IN ETHIOPIA

7.1. Medieval Period

• Amde Tsiyon (r. $1314-1344$): Most expansionist king; consolidated many provinces.

• Amba Gishen: Royal prison for male descendants to prevent succession wars.

• Adal vs. Christian Kingdom: Continued struggle for control of trade routes. Conflict peaked under Imam Ahmad ibn Ibrahim (Gragn) in the 1530s.

• Jesuit Involvement: In-fighting led both sides to seek external help (Portugal for Christians, Ottoman Turks for Muslims).

7.2. Gadaa System and Oromo Movement

• Gadaa: Democratic socio-political institution of the Oromo; grades rotated every 8 years.

• Expansion (16th Century): Shift in the regional power balance due to large-scale Oromo movement from Bale highlands.

UNIT EIGHT: ETHIOPIA ($16TH\,TO\,MID\,19TH\,CENTURY$)

8.1. Gondarine Period ($1636-1769$)

• Fasiledes: Established Gondar as the permanent capital. Period of architectural splendor.

• Closed-Door Policy: Following the expulsion of Jesuits, Ethiopia isolated itself from Europeans to prevent religious strife.

8.2. Zemene Mesafint (Era of Warlords, $1769-1855$)

• Political fragmentation where regional lords (Rases) held power and emperors were mere puppets. Ended with the rise of Kasa Hailu (Tewodros II).

UNIT NINE: THE AGE OF REVOLUTIONS ($1789-1815$)

9.1. Industrial Revolution

• Began in Britain (~$1750$) due to natural resources, stable government, and banking.

• Inventions: Steam engine (James Watt), Spinning Jenny, Seed Drill.

• Social Impact: Rapid urbanization, rise of the middle class, but also class tensions and Luddite machine-breaking protests.

9.2. Political Revolutions

• American War of Independence ($1775-1783$): Colonies rebelled against "taxation without representation."

• French Revolution ($1789-1799$): Destroyed the Old Regime. Slogan: "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity."

9.3. Napoleon Bonaparte

• Consolidated revolution ideas but acted as a despot. Created the Napoleon Code.

• Defeated at Waterloo (1815) and exiled to St. Helena.

• Congress of Vienna: Redrew European borders based on Legitimacy and Balance of Power.