Anatomy and Physiology II Final Exam Study Guide – Spring 2022

Chapter 16 – Endocrine System

Define Hormones:
- Hormones are chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that are released into the bloodstream to regulate various bodily functions including metabolism, growth, and mood.
Hormones in a Nutshell:
- It's essential to refer to the specific "Hormones in a Nutshell" sheet for a concise overview of hormone classifications, sources, target organs, and functions.
Major Targets of Growth Hormone:
- Growth hormone primarily targets the liver, adipose tissue, muscle, and bone, stimulating growth and metabolism within these tissues.

Chapter 17 – Blood

Loss of Fibrinogen in Plasma:
- A loss of fibrinogen would impair the blood's ability to clot, leading to increased bleeding and potential hemorrhage since fibrinogen is crucial in the coagulation cascade.
Triggers of Erythropoiesis:
- Erythropoiesis may be triggered by low oxygen levels in the blood (hypoxia), which can result from conditions such as anemia, high altitude, or respiratory disease, stimulating the release of erythropoietin from the kidneys.
Leukopenia and Hemorrhagic Anemias:
- Leukopenia refers to a decreased white blood cell count, which can increase vulnerability to infections.
- Hemorrhagic anemia results from significant blood loss, either acute or chronic, which decreases red blood cell count and hemoglobin levels.
Average pH of Blood:
- The average pH of blood is approximately 7.35 to 7.45, maintaining a slightly alkaline state critical for physiological processes.
Major Components of Whole Blood:
  - Plasma: Liquid component containing water, electrolytes, proteins, and nutrients.
  - Red Blood Cells (RBCs): Carry oxygen via hemoglobin and remove carbon dioxide.
  - White Blood Cells (WBCs): Part of the immune system, defending the body against infections.
  - Platelets: Cell fragments involved in hemostasis (clotting).
Types of White Blood Cells:
1. Neutrophils: First responders to infections, particularly bacterial. 2. Lymphocytes: Involved in adaptive immunity; includes T-cells and B-cells. 3. Monocytes: Differentiate into macrophages and dendritic cells to phagocytize pathogens and debris. 4. Eosinophils: Combat multicellular parasites and involved in allergic reactions. 5. Basophils: Release histamine during inflammatory responses and allergic reactions.
Universal Donor and Recipient:
- The universal donor is O- (type O negative) blood, which lacks A and B antigens.
- The universal recipient is AB+ (type AB positive) blood, which has both A and B antigens and Rh factor, allowing it to accept any blood type.

Chapter 18 – Cardiovascular System

Myocardium Blood Supply:
- The myocardium receives its blood supply primarily through the coronary arteries that branch off from the aorta.
Causes of Heart Sounds:
- Heart sounds (lub-dub) result from the closing of heart valves during the cardiac cycle; 'lub' from the closure of the atrioventricular (AV) valves and 'dub' from the closure of the semilunar valves.
Anatomy of the Heart and Blood Flow:
- The heart consists of four chambers: right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium, and left ventricle. Blood flows from the body into the right atrium, to the right ventricle, to the lungs for oxygenation, to the left atrium, and finally to the left ventricle before being pumped to the body.
Heart Valves and Functions:
  - Tricuspid Valve: Between the right atrium and ventricle, prevents backflow into the atrium.
  - Pulmonary Valve: Between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery, prevents backflow into the ventricle.
  - Mitral Valve: Between left atrium and ventricle, prevents backflow into the atrium.
  - Aortic Valve: Between left ventricle and aorta, prevents backflow into the ventricle.
Cardiac Output:
- Cardiac output is defined as the volume of blood the heart pumps per minute, calculated by the formula: $ext{Cardiac Output} = ext{Heart Rate} imes ext{Stroke Volume}$
Tachycardia and Bradycardia:
- Tachycardia: Refers to an elevated heart rate exceeding 100 beats per minute.
- Bradycardia: Refers to a slower heart rate of less than 60 beats per minute.
Function of Arteries:
- Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the tissues (except pulmonary arteries, which carry deoxygenated blood to the lungs).

Chapter 22 – Respiratory System

Types of Cells in Alveoli:
  1. Type I Alveolar Cells: Simple squamous epithelium involved in gas exchange.
  2. Type II Alveolar Cells: Secrete surfactant, reducing surface tension in the alveoli.
  3. Alveolar Macrophages: Immune cells that engulf and digest foreign particles.
Respiratory Zone of the Lungs:
- The respiratory zone begins at the respiratory bronchioles, leading to alveolar ducts and sacs where gas exchange occurs.
Structure at End of Alveolar Duct:
- The structure at the end of each alveolar duct is the alveolar sac, which contains clusters of alveoli.
Functions of the Nasal Conchae:
- The nasal conchae (superior, middle, and inferior) increase the surface area for filtration, humidification, and warming of inspired air.
Lungs’ Location Regarding Membranes:
- The lungs are located within the pleural cavities and are covered by pleura membranes; the visceral pleura covers the lungs, and the parietal pleura lines the chest wall.
Outcome of Tracheal Obstruction:
- A tracheal obstruction can lead to suffocation due to the inability to breathe properly, resulting in insufficient oxygen reaching the lungs.
Maintaining Openness of the Trachea:
- The trachea is maintained open by C-shaped cartilage rings that provide structural support.
Define Pulmonary Ventilation:
- Pulmonary ventilation refers to the process of moving air in and out of the lungs (breathing), which includes inhalation and exhalation.
Most Inspired Particles:
- Most inspired particles do not reach the lungs due to the nasal cavity's filtering, mucous production, and cilia action that cleanse the air before it enters the lungs.
Labeling Diagram:
  - Be able to accurately identify and label the following structures on a diagram:
    - Main (Primary) Bronchus
    - Pharynx
    - Larynx
    - Carina of Trachea

Chapter 23 – Digestive System

Define Digestion:
- Digestion is the biochemical process by which food is broken down into smaller components, enabling nutrient absorption in the gastrointestinal tract.

Chapter 25 – Urinary System

Pathway of Urine Formation and Elimination:
- The pathway urine takes after formation in the kidneys is: nephron → collecting ducts → renal pelvis → ureters → bladder → urethra → elimination from the body.
Position of the Kidneys:
- The kidneys are retroperitoneal, meaning they are located behind the peritoneum in the abdominal cavity.
Aldosterone in the Urinary System:
- Aldosterone is a hormone that regulates sodium and potassium levels and affects water retention in the kidneys, promoting sodium reabsorption and potassium excretion.
Nephron Structure and Functions:
  - Glomerulus: Filters blood to form urine.
  - Proximal Convoluted Tubule: Major site for reabsorption of water, ions, and nutrients.
  - Loop of Henle: Maintains osmotic gradient in the medulla.
  - Distal Convoluted Tubule: Further adjusts ion and acid/base balance.
  - Collecting Duct: Final concentration of urine occurs here.
Entire Responsibility for Urine Formation:
- The nephron is responsible for urine formation, integrating filtration, secretion, and reabsorption processes.
Incontinence and Voiding:
- Incontinence: Involuntary leakage of urine.
- Voiding: The act of expelling urine from the urinary bladder.
Matching Terms with Definitions:
| Term | Definition/Function | |-------------------------------|---------------------------------------------------------------------| | Peritubular Capillaries | Surround nephron and facilitate reabsorption and secretion. | | Vasa Recta | Associated with the Loop of Henle; involved in concentrating urine. | | Afferent Arterioles | Supply blood to the glomeruli for filtration. | | Glomerular Capillaries | Site of filtration; form part of the renal corpuscle. | | Efferent Arterioles | Drain blood from glomeruli, regulating glomerular pressure. |
Role of Microvilli on Apical Surface of Proximal Convoluted Tubule:
- Microvilli increase the surface area for absorption, allowing enhanced reabsorption of water, ions, and nutrients.
Parts of the Renal Corpuscle:
- The renal corpuscle consists of the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule, where filtration occurs.
ADH Effect on Cells in Collecting Tubule:
- Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) increases the permeability of the collecting tubule to water, promoting water reabsorption and concentration of urine.
Functions of the Urinary System:
- Regulation of blood volume and pressure, electrolyte balance, removal of metabolic wastes, and acid-base balance.
Glomerulus vs. Other Capillaries:
- The glomerulus differs from other capillaries by being a high-pressure filtration site, allowing large volumes of fluid to pass through while retaining blood cells and large proteins.
Composition of the Renal Corpuscle:
- The renal corpuscle is composed of the glomerular capillaries and Bowman's capsule.
Functional and Structural Unit of the Kidneys:
- The nephron is the functional and structural unit of the kidneys responsible for urine formation.
Micturition Trigger:
- Micturition is triggered by the filling of the bladder, which activates stretch receptors sending signals to the brain to initiate urination.
Mechanism for Water Reabsorption in Renal Tubules:
- The renal tubules use osmosis and the action of aquaporins to reabsorb water based on osmotic gradients.
Diuretic Effect of Alcohol:
- Alcohol acts as a diuretic by inhibiting the release of ADH, thereby reducing water reabsorption in the kidneys and increasing urine output.
Sequence from Formation of Urine to Elimination:
- The sequence is: nephron → collecting ducts → renal pelvis → ureters → bladder → urethra → elimination from the body.
Labeling Diagram:
  - Be able to accurately identify and label the following structures on a diagram:
    - Glomerulus
    - Afferent Arteriole
    - Collecting Duct
    - Nephron Loop
    - Peritubular Capillaries
Direct Function of the Juxtaglomerular Apparatus:
- The juxtaglomerular apparatus regulates blood pressure and filtration rate of the glomerulus through the secretion of renin and regulation of glomerular filtration pressure.