Civilising the Native, Educating the Nation: A Comprehensive Study Guide on British and Indian Educational Perspectives
British Intentions and the Cultural Mission
Territorial and Revenue Control: Beyond military conquest and financial oversight, the British in India felt a "cultural mission" to reform the local population.
The Goal of Reform: They aimed to "civilise the natives" by changing their customs, values, and education to transform them into what they considered "good subjects."
The Ongoing Debate: For several decades, the nature and method of this education remained a subject of intense debate among British officials.
The Tradition of Orientalism
William Jones (1783): Arrived in Calcutta as a junior judge at the Supreme Court.
Linguistic Expertise: Jones was a linguist who had studied Greek and Latin at Oxford, knew French and English, picked up Arabic from a friend, and learned Persian.
Sanskrit Studies: In Calcutta, he spent hours daily with pandits to learn the subtleties of Sanskrit language, grammar, and poetry.
Ancient Text Research: He studied ancient Indian texts on law, philosophy, religion, politics, morality, arithmetic, medicine, and other sciences.
Collaborators: Englishmen like Henry Thomas Colebrooke and Nathaniel Halhed were also mastering Indian languages and translating Sanskrit and Persian works into English.
The Asiatic Society of Bengal: Founded by Jones and his colleagues, which also published the journal Asiatick Researches.
The Orientalist Outlook and Institutional Growth
Respect for Ancient Cultures: Jones and Colebrooke held a deep respect for ancient cultures (both Indian and Western). They believed Indian civilization had reached its glory in the ancient past and subsequently declined.
The Importance of Sacred Texts: To understand India, they believed it was necessary to discover sacred and legal texts from the ancient period, as these revealed the real ideas and laws of Hindus and Muslims.
Role of the British: By discovering and translating these texts, the British would help Indians rediscover their heritage and understand their past glories. In this process, the British would act as the "guardians" and "masters" of Indian culture.
Institutional Outcomes:
Calcutta Madrasa (1781): Established to promote the study of Arabic, Persian, and Islamic law.
Hindu College, Benaras (1791): Established to encourage the study of ancient Sanskrit texts useful for the administration of the country.
Key Definitions:
Linguist: Someone who knows and studies several languages.
Orientalists: Those with a scholarly knowledge of the language and culture of Asia.
Munshi: A person who can read, write, and teach Persian.
Madrasa: An Arabic word for a place of learning; any type of school or college.
Vernacular: A term referring to local languages or dialects as distinct from the standard/imperial language (English).
The "Grave Errors of the East": Criticism of Orientalism
Early Nineteenth-Century Shift: Many British officials began criticizing the Orientalist vision, claiming Eastern knowledge was unscientific and full of errors.
James Mill’s Critique: He argued the British should not teach what the natives "respected" just to please them. Instead, education should be "useful and practical."
He suggested Indians should be made familiar with Western scientific and technical advances rather than poetry or sacred literature.
Thomas Babington Macaulay: One of the most influential critics. He viewed India as an "uncivilised" country.
Macaulay’s Famous Quote: He declared that "a single shelf of a good European library was worth the whole native literature of India and Arabia."
English as a Civilising Tool: Macaulay argued for teaching English to allow Indians to read fine literature and learn Western science and philosophy. He believed this would change their tastes, values, and culture.
English Education Act of 1835: Following Macaulay’s minute, this act made English the medium of instruction for higher education.
Support for the Calcutta Madrasa and Benaras Sanskrit College was stopped; they were labelled as "temples of darkness that were falling of themselves into decay."
Education for Commerce: Wood’s Despatch (1854)
The Despatch: Sent by Charles Wood, President of the Board of Control of the East India Company, to the Governor-General in India.
Economic Rationale: European learning would enable Indians to recognize the advantages of trade and commerce and the importance of developing the country’s resources.
Creating Consumers: Introducing European lifestyles would change Indian tastes and desires, creating a demand for British-produced goods.
Moral and Administrative Rationale: It was argued that European knowledge would improve the moral character of Indians, making them "truthful and honest."
This would provide the Company with reliable civil servants.
Eastern literature was criticized for failing to instill a sense of duty or administrative skills.
Actions Taken Post-1854:
Government education departments were established.
A system of university education was introduced.
1857: Universities were being established in Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay while the sepoys rose in revolt in Meerut and Delhi.
The Missionaries' Demand for Moral Education
Moral Improvement: Christian missionaries like William Carey argued that the primary purpose of education was to improve moral character through Christian teachings.
Company Opposition: Until , the East India Company opposed missionary activities, fearing they would provoke local suspicion and unrest.
Serampore Mission: Missionaries established a mission at Serampore (under Danish control).
A printing press was set up in .
A college was established in .
Post-1857 Stance: The British government became reluctant to support missionary education directly, fearing that attacking local beliefs would enrage "native" opinion.
The State of Local Schools: William Adam’s Report
Survey (1830s): William Adam, a Scottish missionary, toured Bengal and Bihar to report on vernacular schools.
Findings:
There were over pathshalas in Bengal and Bihar.
Approximately children were being taught (each school had around students).
Schools were set up by wealthy people, local communities, or gurus.
Flexible System:
No fixed fees, printed books, separate buildings, benches, blackboards, roll-call registers, or annual exams.
Teaching was oral; the guru decided the curriculum based on student needs.
Fees were based on parental income (rich paid more).
Harvest Flexibility: Classes were not held during harvest when children worked in fields. The pathshala resumed after the crops were stored, allowing peasant children to attend.
New Routines and Rules Post-1854
Introduction of Order: The Company sought to improve vernacular education by imposing routine and regular inspections.
Government Pandits: Appointed to oversee to schools each, improving teaching standards.
Formalization: Gurus were required to submit periodic reports and follow a regular timetable. Teaching became textbook-based with annual examinations.
Discipline: Children were required to pay regular fees, sit on fixed seats, and attend regular classes.
Consequences:
Pathshalas that accepted the rules received government grants; those that resisted lost support.
Independent gurus found it hard to compete with aided schools.
The new system hurt poor peasant families because the rigid schedule required attendance even during harvest time. Missing school was seen as "indiscipline."
National Education: Indian Perspectives
Aurobindo Ghose: In , he stated the goal of national education was to awaken the spirit of nationality.
Education should be in the vernacular.
Students should stay connected to their roots while taking advantage of modern scientific discoveries and Western experiments in government.
Students should learn useful crafts for employment.
Mahatma Gandhi’s Views:
Argued that colonial education created a sense of inferiority and destroyed pride in Indian culture.
Labelled English education as "sinful" and "poisonous," claiming it "enslaved" Indians.
Wanted education to focus on dignity and self-respect, urging students to leave institutions during the national movement.
Believed the medium of instruction should be Indian languages; English made Indians "strangers in their own lands."
Emphasized that literacy (reading and writing) is not education. Education should develop the "mind and soul" through practical knowledge and handicrafts.
Rabindranath Tagore and Santiniketan:
Santiniketan (1901): Established an "abode of peace" kilometres from Calcutta in a rural setting.
Childhood Philosophy: Tagore hated the "prison-like" atmosphere of traditional schools. He believed childhood should be a time of self-learning and creative freedom.
Educational Environment: Advocated for learning in a natural environment to cultivate curiosity.
Comparison to Gandhi: While Gandhi was critical of Western machine worship, Tagore sought to combine modern Western science and technology with the best of Indian art, music, and dance.
Education as a Civilising Mission: The English Context
Education Act of 1870: Prior to this, widespread education for the general population in England did not exist (child labour was prevalent).
Thomas Arnold: Headmaster of Rugby school, favored a curriculum of Greek and Roman classics (written years earlier).
Discipline and Civilisation: Most educators of the time believed young people were "naturally savage" and needed the discipline of the classics to become civilised adults.
Social Control: Education was viewed as a way to teach notions of right and wrong and proper behavior to the poor and "natives."