Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment Overview

Natural Philosophy

  • Definition: An early modern term for the study of the nature of the universe, its purpose, and how it functioned; encompasses what we would call "science" today.

Key Concepts of the Scientific Revolution

Copernican Hypothesis

  • Definition: The idea that the sun, not the earth, is the center of the universe.

  • Implications: Enormous scientific and religious implications, many of which Copernicus did not foresee.

    • Put the stars at rest; their apparent nightly movement is simply a result of the earth’s rotation.

Law of Inertia

  • Hypothesis: Proposed by Galileo.

  • Definition: States that motion, not rest, is the natural state of an object; an object continues in motion indefinitely unless acted upon by an external force.

Law of Universal Gravitation

  • Definition: Newton’s law stating that all objects are attracted to one another, the force of attraction is proportional to the objects’ quantity of matter, and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

  • Mathematical Expression: If two objects have masses $m1$ and $m2$ and are separated by a distance $r$, the gravitational force $F$ can be expressed as:
    F=Gracm<em>1m</em>2r2F = G rac{m<em>1 m</em>2}{r^2}
    where $G$ is the gravitational constant.

Cartesian Dualism

  • Definition: Descartes’s view that all of reality can ultimately be reduced to mind and matter, asserting that all substances are either physical (matter) or mental (mind).

    • Descartes believed that God endowed man with reason, which serves as a pathway to the truths of creation.

Enlightenment

  • Definition: Influential intellectual and cultural movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries introducing a worldview based on reason, the scientific method, and progress.

Rationalism

  • Definition: A secular, critical way of thinking where nothing is accepted on faith and all ideas must be subjected to reason.

Sensationalism

  • Definition: The notion that all human ideas and thoughts originate from sensory impressions, heavily influenced by Locke's essay contributions.

Philosophes

  • Definition: A group of French intellectuals claiming to bring the light of knowledge to humanity during the Age of Enlightenment.

    • Played a crucial role in the spread of inquiry and intellectual discourse.

Deism

  • Definition: The belief in a distant and noninterventionist deity, common among Enlightenment thinkers.

    • Voltaire, for example, believed in God but rejected Catholicism in favor of deism.

Social and Cultural Developments

Salon

  • Definition: Regular social gatherings in Paris hosted by wealthy upper-class women,

    • Example: Mme de Geoffrin, where philosophes and followers discussed literature, science, and philosophy.

Rococo

  • Definition: An 18th-century European artistic style known for its soft pastels, ornate interiors, sentimental portraits, and depictions of starry-eyed lovers and cupids.

Public Sphere

  • Definition: An idealized intellectual space emerging during the Enlightenment in Europe.

    • A venue where the public gathered to debate significant topics in society, economics, and politics.

Enlightened Absolutism

  • Definition: Describes the rule of 18th-century monarchs who, without renouncing their absolute authority, adopted Enlightenment ideals of rationalism, progress, and tolerance.

Cameralism

  • Definition: A viewpoint that monarchy is the best form of government, where all members of society should serve the monarch, and in turn, the state should enhance the public good.

Haskalah

  • Definition: The Jewish Enlightenment of the late 18th century, led by the philosopher Moses Mendelssohn.

Historical Events and Figures

Seven Years’ War

  • Description: A global conflict described as a struggle for global primacy between Britain and France, significantly impacting the Spanish Empire.

    • Originated from unresolved issues from the War of the Austrian Succession; Prussia sought greater dominance.

Catherine the Great

  • Title: Empress of Russia from 1762 until 1796, the longest-ruling female leader in Russia.

    • Came to power following a coup that overthrew her husband, Peter III.

Significant Philosophers

  • Denis Diderot (1713–1784): Editor of the Encyclopedia: The Rational Dictionary of the Sciences, the Arts, and the Crafts (1751–1766).

  • Joseph II and Leopold II, Habsburg Empire:

    • Joseph II: Holy Roman Emperor, reigned from August 1765 and ruled Habsburg lands from November 1780 until his death.

    • Offspring of Empress Maria Theresa and brother to Marie Antoinette.

  • Moses Mendelssohn (1729–1786): Major figure of the Jewish Enlightenment.

  • Tycho Brahe (1546–1601): Built an observatory and recorded planetary motion data.

  • Johannes Kepler (1571–1630): Utilized Brahe's data to mathematically support the Copernican hypothesis; developed laws of planetary motion, which first united natural philosophy and mathematics.

The Milestones of the Scientific Revolution

  • Summary: The Scientific Revolution marked a departure from a geocentric universe to understanding dueling perspectives of the cosmos and our place in it:

    • Before: Belief in fixed, stable, and finite universe.

    • After: The universe is infinite, dynamic, and governed by natural laws.

Prominent Figures of the Scientific Revolution

  • Nicolaus Copernicus: Proposed heliocentric model; published On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres.

  • Galileo Galilei: Advocated the theory of inertia; faced Inquisition but remained a key figure in scientific thought.

  • Isaac Newton: Authored Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy; synthesized previous theories and introduced laws of motion and universal gravitation.

Conclusions on the Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment Movement

  • Impact of Historical Context: For the Scientific Revolution

    • Political: Absolute monarchs consolidated power and funded scientific research.

    • Economic: Mercantilism led to the exploitation of colonies and stimulated funding for scientific endeavors.

    • Cultural: The decrease in religious suppression allowed for advancements; the printing press accelerated the spread of ideas and discoveries.

  • Enlightenment Causes and Effects

    • Enlightenment thought ushered in significant shifts, including the rise of humanism, challenges to absolutism, and the emergence of nationalism.

Noteworthy Contributions of Enlightened Monarchs

  • Frederick II of Prussia: Reinvented governance using Enlightenment ideas, endorsed religious freedom, and improved education.

  • Joseph II of Austria: Abolished serfdom; faced challenges in implementing reforms posthumously.

  • Catherine the Great of Russia: Strategically funded Enlightenment projects and attempted to Westernize Russian culture.

Societal and Intellectual Changes

Changes in Intellectual Authority Post-Scientific Revolution

  • Before: Authority derived from the church and ancient texts (e.g., Aristotle).

  • After: Emphasis shifted to reason, empirical science, and experimental methods.

Shift in Philosophical Thought During the Enlightenment

  • Before: Religion maintained cultural dominance.

  • After: Increased secularism, toleration, and the critical scrutiny of established norms.