Modern Events and U.S. Foreign Policy Study Guide

Early Modern Foreign Policy Frameworks

Foreign policy during the Spanish-American War is best categorized as Imperialism. This stands in contrast to the foreign policy of the Cold War era, which is best defined by the term Containment. These frameworks set the stage for later interventions and diplomatic strategies involving various global conflicts and ideological struggles.

The Presidency of Jimmy Carter and Middle East Peace

President Jimmy Carter approached foreign policy with the belief that he could reassert morality, defined as the distinction between right and wrong, into international relations. His primary achievement in this area was the negotiation of the Camp David Accords. In $1977$, Carter invited the leaders of Israel and Egypt to Camp David, where they conducted negotiations for nearly two weeks. Under the resulting Camp David Accords, Egypt officially recognized Israel, and in exchange, Israel returned the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt. This agreement was intended to stabilize relations between the two nations and serve as a preliminary step toward the ultimate goal of peace in the Middle East. Geographically, these agreements involved several key areas including the Suez Canal, the Mediterranean Sea, Port Said, the Gaza strip, and the Sinai settlement zones such as the Yamit Settlements.

The Iran Hostage Crisis

The Iran Hostage Crisis began following a successful revolution led by fundamentalists against the pro-American Shah of Iran. In $1979$, Iranian students seized the United States embassy and took over $50$ Americans as hostages. An embassy is defined as the official headquarters for representatives of the United States in a foreign country. These hostages were held for a duration of $444$ days. The crisis received constant news coverage, which significantly weakened the public image of President Carter. Ultimately, the situation was resolved through patient diplomacy, but the United States remained hesitant to escalate the situation militarily. The resolution of the crisis was celebrated with events such as the "Welcome Back to Freedom" open house.

The Reagan Doctrine and Cold War Evolution

President Ronald Reagan's foreign policy, known as the Reagan Doctrine, stood in contrast to the Truman Doctrine. While the Truman Doctrine focused on containment, the Reagan Doctrine sought to actively "roll back" communism. To achieve this, Reagan sent troops to Afghanistan and Grenada to support groups opposing communist takeovers. He also provided aid to the "Contras," who were anti-communist rebels in Nicaragua. This policy eventually faced opposition from Congress, which moved to ban the administration from continuing to provide aid to the Contras.

The Iran-Contra Affair

During Reagan's presidency, a significant scandal known as the Iran-Contra Affair emerged. Terrorist groups in Lebanon with ties to Iran kidnapped several Americans. In a secret arrangement, the United States traded missiles and other arms to Iran to secure the release of some hostages. The funds generated from these secret arms sales were then used to support the Contras in Nicaragua, circumventing a Congressional ban on such support. When the news broke, the administration was accused of negotiating with terrorists and violating the law. Although several officials resigned and Oliver North famously stated, "I was authorized to do everything that I did," President Reagan claimed he had no knowledge of the bargain. Terrorism in this context is defined as the use of unlawful violence and intimidation, especially against civilians, for political aims.

Soviet Reforms: Glasnost and Perestroika

In $1985$, Mikhail Gorbachev became the leader of the Soviet government. To combat economic suffering and corruption, he introduced two major policies: Glasnost and Perestroika. "Glasnost" refers to openness or transparency in the Soviet government, which allowed for public criticism. "Perestroika" introduced limited free enterprise into the Soviet economy. These shifts allowed Reagan and Gorbachev to meet and discuss the dismantling of their respective nuclear arsenals, marking a significant easing of Cold War tensions.

International Human Rights and Apartheid

In South Africa, a system of laws known as "apartheid" enforced the segregation of citizens. While Reagan favored a policy of "constructive engagement"—continuing business relations while pressuring for reform—Congress disagreed and passed strict sanctions over Reagan's veto. The apartheid system eventually ended in the $1990\text{s}$. In $1994$, South Africa held its first free presidential election, electing Nelson Mandela, who had previously spent $27$ years in prison for his opposition to the system. This event drew parallels for many Americans to the civil rights struggles in the United States, such as the legal battles seen in Brown v. Board of Education.

The Persian Gulf War and the New World Order

Following the collapse of the USSR, President George H.W. Bush spoke of a "new world order" based on democracy. When Iraq occupied Kuwait, Bush organized an international coalition to intervene. During the Persian Gulf War, U.S. troops were sent into Kuwait and defeated the Iraqi forces. Despite the military victory, the U.S. allowed Saddam Hussein to remain in power in Iraq. This conflict emphasized the concept of proxy wars and the global concern over the stability of oil-producing regions.

Ethnic Cleansing and Humanitarian Intervention

In the late $20\text{th}$ century, policies of genocide known as "ethnic cleansing" emerged in Europe and Africa. In Europe, President Bill Clinton utilized air power against Serbia, and NATO intervened when Serbian leaders targeted Muslims in Kosovo and Bosnia. In contrast, when the Hutus targeted the Tutsis in Rwanda, resulting in $850,000$ deaths, the United States provided little reaction. These events raised questions regarding the consistency of U.S. defense of human rights and the specific role of NATO intervention.

Democracy in Haiti

President Clinton continued the precedent of supporting democracy abroad by intervening in Haiti. After military leaders overthrew Jean-Bertrand Aristide, the democratically elected leader, Clinton sent American troops to restore him to power. This action invoked comparisons to historical policies like the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, also known as the "Big Stick Policy."

Globalization and Economic Interdependence

Globalization is defined as the interdependence of the world's economies. This is facilitated by major organizations and agreements:

1. OPEC ($1960$): The Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries. In the $1970\text{s}$, OPEC raised oil prices, leading to fuel shortages and inflation in the U.S. This caused reduced gas station hours and total outages.
2. NAFTA ($1994$): The North American Free Trade Agreement, which established free trade between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico.
3. WTO ($1994$): The World Trade Organization, a global body that handles the rules of trade between nations.

Economic Impacts on Americans

Globalization has had both positive and negative effects on the American public:

• Stagflation: A condition where prices increase ($\text{inflation}$) and unemployment increases at the same time. This was notably impacted by OPEC in the $1970\text{s}$.
• Technology and Innovation: Globalization allows nations to specialize in specific skills and products. For example, building a car is easier when parts (like specific glass panes) are traded globally rather than sourced locally. This makes technology more accessible and of higher quality.
• Outsourcing: This occurs when labor is sourced from outside the U.S. due to lower wages. While this leads to lower prices for consumers, it can result in lower income or unemployment for American workers in specific industries.
• Economic Definitions: Inflation is a rise in prices (modeled by a balloon getting bigger), while deflation is a decrease in prices (modeled by a balloon getting smaller).

Environmentalism and the Green Revolution

The Green Revolution refers to an improvement in food production that increased global access to food but simultaneously decreased biodiversity (the variety of living things). Domestically, President Richard Nixon's $1972$ message to Congress led to the Clean Air Act. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) was established to balance industrial needs with conservation. Key environmental concerns include rising sea levels impacting coastal communities, water and air pollution affecting health and food sources, and the impact of landfills and changing weather patterns on farmers and travelers. Rachel Carson's $1962$ book, "Silent Spring," warned of a "strange blight" caused by human activity that silenced nature and killed livestock, emphasizing that environmental damage is a man-made tragedy.

Domestic and International Terrorism

Terrorism is the use of violence against innocent civilians to blackmail governments or draw media attention to grievances. Methods include car bombs, hijackings, and suicide bombings.

• Oklahoma City Bombing ($1995$): Timothy McVeigh, a Persian Gulf War veteran resenting a federal raid in Texas, and Terry Nichols used $4,800\text{ pounds}$ of fertilizer-based explosives to destroy a federal building. The attack killed $168$ people (including $19$ children) and caused over $600\text{ million dollars}$ in damage. This led to the Antiterrorism Act and Effective Death Penalty Act.
• September $11$, $2001$ ($9/11$): Al-Qaeda, led by Osama bin Laden, launched a "jihad" (holy war) against the U.S. due to resentment of Western influence and U.S. troops in Saudi Arabia. Terrorists used box cutters to hijack commercial jets and fly them into the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, killing over $3,000$ people.
• War on Terror: President George W. Bush launched this initiative, overthrowing the Taliban in Afghanistan for sheltering bin Laden. It led to the creation of the Department of Homeland Security, the TSA, and the Patriot Act ($2001$), which increased presidential powers for wiretapping and surveillance.

Social and Legislative Changes

During the Reagan era, the administration faced criticism for not providing enough funds for AIDS research, a demand voiced during the $1987$ March on Washington for Lesbian and Gay Rights. Economically, Reaganomics focused on reducing government regulation of businesses. Regarding immigration, the Immigration and Naturalization Act ($1965$) ended the quota system and prioritized skilled workers and family reunification. Later, the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program was established to protect the children of undocumented immigrants from deportation.

Questions & Discussion

• Which U.S. foreign policy goal is most closely associated with the headlines regarding Carter's Camp David Accords, Reagan in Lebanon, and Bush's Desert Storm? The goal is stability in the Middle East.
• Which foreign policy event is most associated with peacekeeping? The Camp David Accords.
• Summarize the Truman Doctrine: A policy of containment to prevent the spread of communism.
• Describe an embassy: The official headquarters for U.S. representatives in a foreign country.
• How did the Iran Hostage Crisis impact Carter's presidency? it weakened his image and contributed to a perception of failed diplomacy.
• Is OPEC an example of globalization's benefits or harms? It demonstrates the harm of interdependence when supply is manipulated, leading to stagflation.