Cognition and Learning Study Guide
Cognition & Learning Study Guide
Learning, Behaviorism, & the Behavioral Perspective
Classical Conditioning: Associative Learning
Involves learning associations between events.
Acquisition
The initial stage of learning when a neutral stimulus is linked to an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response.
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) & Unconditioned Response (UCR)
UCS: A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.
UCR: The unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus.
Neutral Stimulus (NS)
A stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS) & Conditioned Response (CR)
CS: An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response.
CR: The learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus.
Extinction & Spontaneous Recovery
Extinction: The diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs when the UCS does not follow a CS.
Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response.
Stimulus Discrimination & Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus Discrimination: The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and stimuli that do not signal an unconditioned stimulus.
Stimulus Generalization: The tendency, once a response has been conditioned, for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit similar responses.
Aversion & Habituation
Aversion: A strong dislike or disinclination.
Habituation: Decreasing responsiveness with repeated exposure to a stimulus.
John Watson’s Research
Known for the Little Albert experiment, demonstrating classical conditioning of emotional responses.
Ivan Pavlov’s Research
Famous for his experiments with dogs, which demonstrated classical conditioning.
Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement & Punishment
Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus.
Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus.
Primary Reinforcement: Innately reinforcing stimulus (e.g., food).
Secondary Reinforcement: A conditioned reinforcer (e.g., money).
E.L. Thorndike’s Research & The Law of Effect
Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely; behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.
Schedules of Reinforcement
Fixed-Ratio: Reinforcement after a fixed number of responses.
Variable-Ratio: Reinforcement after a variable number of responses.
Fixed-Interval: Reinforcement after a fixed time interval.
Variable-Interval: Reinforcement after a variable time interval.
Social Learning Theory & Cognitive Learning
Observational Learning & Modeling
Observational Learning: Learning by observing others.
Modeling: The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.
Albert Bandura’s Research
Bobo doll experiment demonstrated observational learning and modeling.
Latent Learning
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.
Cognitive Maps
A mental representation of the layout of one's environment.
Memory
Encoding, Storage, Retrieval
Encoding: Getting information into memory.
Storage: Retaining information in memory.
Retrieval: Getting information out of memory storage.
Explicit (Declarative) and Implicit (Procedural) Memory
Explicit: Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare.
Implicit: Retention independent of conscious recollection.
Semantic versus Episodic Memory
Semantic: Memory of general knowledge.
Episodic: Memory of personal experiences.
Flashbulb Memory
A clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.
Biological Processes & Memory
Long-Term Potentiation (LTP): An increase in a synapse's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation.
Brain Structures:
Hippocampus: Processes explicit memories.
Cerebellum: Processes implicit memories.
Amygdala: Processes emotional memories.
Basal Ganglia: Motor movement and implicit memories.
Working Memory
Central Executive: Focuses attention.
Phonological Loop: Deals with auditory information.
Visuospatial Sketchpad: Deals with visual and spatial information.
Multi-Store Memory
Sensory Memory:
Iconic: A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli.
Echoic: A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli.
Short-Term Memory: Activated memory that holds a few items briefly (7 plus or minus 2).
Working Memory: A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory.
Long-Term Memory: The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.
Deep Versus Shallow Processing
Deep Processing: Encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words.
Shallow Processing: Encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words.
Mnemonic Devices, Chunking, Hierarchies, Spacing Effect
Mnemonic Devices: Memory aids.
Chunking: Organizing items into familiar, manageable units.
Hierarchies: Organizing information into levels.
Spacing Effect: The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.
Serial Positioning (Recency versus Primacy)
Recency Effect: Remembering the last items in a list.
Primacy Effect: Remembering the first items in a list.
Amnesia
Retrograde versus Anterograde Amnesia
Retrograde: Inability to remember past events.
Anterograde: Inability to form new memories.
Context-Dependent & Mood-Congruent Memory
Context-Dependent: Memory is improved when the context at retrieval matches the context at encoding.
Mood-Congruent: The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood.
Types of Interference (Proactive vs. Retroactive)
Proactive: Prior learning disrupts recall of new information.
Retroactive: New learning disrupts recall of old information.
Misinformation Effect
Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.
Intelligence
General Abilities Theories
Spearman's General Intelligence (g): A general intelligence factor that underlies specific mental abilities.
Cattell-Horn-Carroll (CHC) Theory: A hierarchical model of cognitive abilities.
Multiple Abilities Theories
Sternberg's Triarchic Theory: Analytical, creative, and practical intelligences.
Gardner's Multiple Intelligences: Linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalist.
Emotional Intelligence
The ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ), Mental Age
IQ: A measure of intelligence.
Mental Age: The age at which a person is performing intellectually.
Intelligence Tests
WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale)
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
Psychometric Principles
Standardization: Defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.
Reliability: The extent to which a test yields consistent results.
Validity: The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to.
Factor Analysis: A statistical procedure that identifies clusters of related items (called factors) on a test.
Flynn Effect: The worldwide phenomenon that shows intelligence test performance increasing over the years.
Socioculturally Responsive Tests, Stereotype Threat, Sociocultural Biases
Socioculturally Responsive Tests: Tests that are designed to be fair to all cultural groups.
Stereotype Threat: A self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.
Sociocultural Biases: Systematic errors in measurement due to cultural factors.
Eugenics
The scientifically erroneous and immoral theory of "racial improvement" and "planned breeding,"
Fixed versus Growth Mindset
Fixed Mindset: The belief that intelligence is static.
Growth Mindset: The belief that intelligence is malleable and can be developed.