Brown v. Board of Education – Essential Exam Notes

Background

  • Brown v. Board of Education (1954) ended legal racial segregation in U.S. public facilities, overturning Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)'s "separate but equal" doctrine.

  • This ruling catalyzed the Civil Rights Movement, inspiring the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965, foundational for future racial progress.

Key Plaintiffs & Consolidated Suits

  • Linda Brown of Topeka, Kansas, was the primary plaintiff, denied enrollment at a nearby white school.

  • The Supreme Court consolidated five cases challenging school segregation, including Davis v. Prince Edward County (VA) and Bolling v. Sharpe (DC).

  • The NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund (LDF), led by Thurgood Marshall, provided crucial legal and financial backing.

NAACP / LDF Litigation Strategy

  • The NAACP pursued a multi-decade legal campaign to dismantle "separate but equal," initially targeting graduate and professional schools.

  • Significant victories included:

    • Gaines v. Canada (1938): Missouri compelled to provide equal legal education.

    • McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents (1950): Prohibited segregated conditions for black students in white universities.

    • Sweatt v. Painter (1950): Ruled separate black law school unequal due to intangible factors, eroding "separate but equal."

Supreme Court Proceedings

  • Arguments for Brown v. Board of Education were first heard in December 1952, reargued in June 1953.

  • Chief Justice Earl Warren, appointed September 1953, forged a unanimous decision.

  • Brown I (May 17, 1954):

    • Unanimously ruled "separate educational facilities are inherently unequal," violating the Fourteenth Amendment's Equal Protection Clause.

    • Argued segregation fostered inferiority among African American children.

    • Bolling v. Sharpe, decided concurrently, extended the ruling to D.C. via the Fifth Amendment's Due Process Clause.

  • Brown II (May 31, 1955):

    • Ordered states to desegregate public schools "with all deliberate speed," assigning federal district courts oversight.

Immediate Reactions

  • The decision garnered international acclaim, improving the U.S. image during the Cold War.

  • The Northern press lauded the decision; the black community was cautiously hopeful.

  • In the South, resistance quickly emerged, with White Citizens Councils using intimidation.

  • The "Southern Manifesto (1956)," signed by 101 Southern members of Congress, condemned the ruling and urged resistance.

Resistance & Federal Enforcement

  • Southern states adopted "massive resistance" tactics, including amending state constitutions and diverting funds to private white academies.

  • Key flashpoint: Little Rock Central High School (1957), where Governor Orval Faubus blocked the "Little Rock Nine."

  • President Dwight D. Eisenhower federalized the Arkansas National Guard and deployed paratroopers to enforce integration.

  • Cooper v. Aaron (1958) reaffirmed federal law supremacy, stating states were bound by federal court orders.

Progress After 1964

  • The Civil Rights Act of 1964 (Title VI) allowed withholding federal funds from discriminatory programs, compelling compliance.

  • The Voting Rights Act of 1965 empowered black voters, accelerating desegregation.

  • De jure segregation (by law) diminished, but de facto segregation (due to housing/socioeconomics) persisted, especially in urban areas.

Legacy

  • Brown demonstrated the Supreme Court's role as a catalyst for social change, requiring executive and legislative support for enforcement.

  • The fight for educational equity continued; Linda Brown's case was reopened in 1979, leading to a new desegregation plan for Topeka schools in 1994, highlighting the ongoing nature of achieving true integration.