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Lexicology

  • Definition:
    • A branch of linguistics, which is the science of language.
    • Derived from two Greek morphemes:
    • Lexis: meaning 'word, phrase'
    • Logos: denoting 'learning, a department of knowledge'
    • Literal meaning: 'the science of the word'.

Relation to Other Linguistic Branches

  • Phonetics:
    • Investigates the phonetic structure of language (system of phonemes and intonation patterns).
    • Concerned with the outer sound form of the word.
  • Grammar:
    • Study of grammatical structure of language.
    • Involves expressing grammatical relations between words and patterns for combining words into groups and sentences.

Aims and Methods of Lexicology

  • Basic task:
    • To study and systematically describe vocabulary regarding its origin, development, and current use.
  • Focus:
    • Words, variable word-groups, phraseological units, and morphemes making up words.

Approaches in Linguistic Science

  • Two principal approaches:
    1. Synchronic:
    • Greek terms: syn (together, with) and chronos (time).
    • Concerned with vocabulary of a language at a specific point in time (e.g., present time).
    • Special Descriptive Lexicology focuses on vocabulary units of a particular language at a given time (e.g., English vocabulary today).
    1. Diachronic:
    • Greek term: dia (through).
    • Examines changes and development of vocabulary over time.
    • Special Historical Lexicology investigates the evolution of vocabulary units within English history.
    • Focus on factors influencing structure and meaning changes.

Lexical Units Studied in Lexicology

  • Types of lexical units:
    • Morphemes
    • Words
    • Variable word groups
    • Phraseological units
  • Basic unit of analysis:
    • The word: largest unit on morphologic level and smallest on syntactic level.
    • Defined as a structural and semantic entity in the language system.

Vocabulary Composition of English Language

  • Layers:
    • Native Stock:
    • Comprises only 30% of total vocabulary, yet forms bulk of frequent words used in speech and writing.
    • Characteristics:
      • Wider range of lexical and grammatical valency.
      • Highly polysemantic and productive in forming word clusters and set expressions.
    • Borrowed Stock:
    • Significantly larger than native stock
    • Words modified from other languages.

Borrowed Words

  • Definition:
    • Words taken from another language and modified according to the receiving language patterns.
    • Example: Words like street, school, face are often indistinguishable from native words without etymological analysis.
  • Factors determining borrowed words number and role:
    • Historical development of the borrowing nation.
  • Methods of borrowing:
    1. Direct Borrowing:
    • Involves direct contact with another country's people or literature.
    1. Indirect Borrowing:
    • Occurs through another language.

Key Terms in Analyzing Borrowed Words

  • Source of Borrowing:
    • Language from which the word was immediately borrowed.
  • Origin of Borrowing:
    • Language to which the word can ultimately be traced.
  • Examples:
    • Word table:
    • Source: French
    • Origin: Latin
    • Word elephant:
    • Source: French
    • Origin: Egyptian
    • Word convene:
    • Source: French
    • Origin: Latin
  • Degree of linguistic closeness affects the ease of borrowing.

Classifications of Borrowed Words

  1. Borrowings proper
  2. Translation Loans:
    • Formed using elements existing in English based on source language pattern (e.g. the moment of truth – Spanish el momento de la verdad).
  3. Semantic Loans:
    • Borrowing of a meaning for an existing English word (e.g., shock brigade acquiring a new meaning from Russian).

Types of Latin Loans

  1. Early Latin Loans:
    • Words adopted pre-Anglo-Saxon invasion (e.g., cup, kitchen).
  2. Later Latin Borrowings:
    • Words entered during the 6th and 7th centuries due to Christian conversion (e.g., priest, bishop).
  3. Third Period of Latin Loans:
    • Post-Norman conquest (1066) and Renaissance period.
    • Words from French and directly from Latin.
  4. Latest Stratum of Latin Words:
    • Mainly abstract and scientific (e.g., nylon, molecular, vaccine).

Norman-French Borrowings

  • Subdivided into:
    1. Early loans: 12th - 15th century (simple, short words; e.g., state, power).
    2. Later loans: 16th century onwards (could be identified by peculiarities in form/pronunciation; e.g., regime, ballet).

Etymological Structure of the English Vocabulary

Native Element:

  • Indo-European element
  • Germanic element
  • English proper element (brought by Angles, Saxons, and Jutes)

Borrowed Element:

  • Celtic (5-6th c. A.D.)
  • Latin:
    • Group 1: Pre-Christian era.
    • Group 2: 7th c. A.D.
    • Group 3: Renaissance period.
  • Scandinavian (8-11th c. A.D.)
  • French:
    • Norman borrowings (11-13th c. A.D.)
    • Parisian borrowings (Renaissance)
  • Greek
  • Italian (Renaissance and later)
  • Spanish (Renaissance)
  • German
  • Indian and others

Assimilation of Borrowings

  • Definition:
    • Process of changing the adopted word including changes in sound form, morphological structure, grammar, characteristics, meaning, and usage.
  • Types of Assimilation:
    1. Phonetic Assimilation:
    • Changes in sound form and stress (e.g., café pronounced with English sound).
    1. Grammatical Adaptation:
    • Changing paradigms of borrowed words, though exceptions exist for diverse plural forms.
    1. Semantic Assimilation:
    • Various forms:
      • Narrowing of meanings
      • Specialization or generalization
      • Acquisition of new meanings.

Types of Borrowings by Assimilation

  1. Completely Assimilated Borrowings:
    • Underwent all types of assimilation; frequently used and stylistically neutral.
  2. Partially Assimilated Borrowings:
    • Lacks one type of assimilation:
    1. Not assimilated semantically (e.g., shah, rajah)
    2. Not assimilated grammatically (e.g., data, criteria)
    3. Not fully assimilated phonetically (e.g., machine, camouflage)
    4. Not fully assimilated graphically (e.g., ballet, café, cliché).

Barbarisms

  • Definition:
    • Words from other languages used without assimilation.
    • Examples:
    • Ciao (Italian - goodbye)
    • Aloha (Hawaiian - greeting)
    • Mahalo (Hawaiian - thanks).

Borrowed Elements in English Vocabulary

  • Contains not only words but a variety of suffixes and prefixes:
    • They began as parts of words, later evolved as word-building elements (e.g., -age, -ance).
    • Resulted in hybrid words (e.g., shortage, hindrance, lovable ).
  • Etymological Doublets:
    • A single word often borrowed multiple times from one or different languages (e.g., canal-channel, skirt-shirt).
  • International Words:
    • Words borrowed across multiple languages, particularly of Latin and Greek origin.
    • Fields/examples:
    • Sciences: philosophy, physics
    • Arts: music, theatre
    • Politics: politics, policy
    • Sports Terms: football, hockey.