Comprehensive Study Guide for the Colonial History of Panama

The Four Eras of Panamanian History

The history of Panama is formally divided into four distinct chronological periods that mark the evolution of the region from its earliest inhabitants to its current status as a sovereign nation. These periods are categorized as the Pre-Hispanic era, which covers the time before European contact; the Hispanic or Colonial era, characterized by Spanish rule; the era of Union with Colombia, which followed independence from Spain; and the Republican era, which represents the modern state of Panama. Each epoch represents a significant shift in the political, social, and economic structure of the Isthmus.

The Hispanic and Colonial Period

The Hispanic or Colonial era constitutes the second major period in Panamanian history. This epoch began in the year $1501$ with the arrival of Spanish explorers on the Isthmus and spanned over three centuries. It concluded on the $28$th of November in the year $1821$, the date on which Panama formally declared its independence from Spanish rule. During this time, the region was integrated into the Spanish Empire, serving as a vital link between the crown and its territories in the Americas.

The Strategic Role of the Isthmus in Global Trade

During the Colonial era, the Isthmus of Panama underwent a transformation into a strategic global point for the transportation of wealth. Its geographic location made it the primary conduit for moving riches from the American colonies toward Spain and, conversely, distributing European goods throughout the New World. This transit role defined the colonial economy and established Panama as a critical hub for international commerce.

The products flowing through the Panamanian route were diverse and valuable. From the south, particularly from Peru, explorers and merchants transported gold and silver extracted from mines. Other precious materials such as pearls and various spices were also frequent items of trade. In the opposite direction, from Europe, the route saw the passage of luxury goods, textiles, tools, and various European merchandise. This trade network also involved the forced transportation and sale of African slaves, who were brought to the Isthmus as labor.

Colonial Transportation Infrastructure: Camino Real and Camino de Cruces

To facilitate the movement of goods and wealth across the Isthmus, the Spanish Crown established two primary transit routes: the Camino Real and the Camino de Cruces. These routes formed the foundations of the trans-isthmian transit system that connected the Pacific Ocean with the Atlantic (Caribbean) coast.

The Camino Real was the principal terrestrial route utilized by the Spaniards for the transport of riches. It was a purely land-based path that connected the city of Panama with the port of Portobelo. Historically significant as one of the first roads built by the Spanish, it was known for being a difficult and dangerous path. Its primary purpose was the high-value transport of gold and silver bars from Peru toward the Caribbean ports for shipment to Europe.

In contrast, the Camino de Cruces functioned as a mixed route, combining both terrestrial and fluvial (river) segments. This path utilized the Chagres River for a significant portion of the journey. Because it relied on water transport for part of the way, the Camino de Cruces was considered easier and more efficient than the Camino Real, especially for moving heavy cargo. It connected the city of Panama with the Caribbean coast and was highly favored for the transport of general merchandise and wealth due to its relative comfort compared to the rugged land route.

Early Explorations and Coastal Mapping

The initial mapping and exploration of the Panamanian coastline were conducted by several key figures. Rodrigo de Bastidas was the first explorer to navigate the coast of the Isthmus in the year $1501$. He traveled along the Caribbean Sea coast, starting from present-day Colombia and reaching a portion of the Panamanian littoral. In the year $1502$, Christopher Columbus arrived at the Caribbean coast of Panama, exploring areas that correspond to the modern-day province of Colón and various islands in the Bocas del Toro region. Furthermore, in the year $1513$, Vasco Núñez de Balboa famously discovered the South Sea (the Pacific Ocean), proving that a traversable land bridge existed between the world's two largest oceans.

City Foundations and Urban Settlements

The urban development of Panama began early in the $16$th century. The first city founded on the Isthmus was Santa María la Antigua del Darién, established in the year $1510$. This foundation was led by Vasco Núñez de Balboa and Martín Fernández de Enciso, with the latter serving as the main principal in the endeavor. In the same year, $1510$, the city of Nombre de Dios was founded by Diego de Nicuesa.

The second major city founded on the Isthmus was Nuestra Señora de la Asunción de Panamá (now known as Panama Viejo). It was established on the $15$th of August in the year $1519$ by Pedro Arias Dávila on the Pacific coast. As the Spanish expanded into the interior of the Isthmus to consolidate territory and facilitate resources, Pedro Arias Dávila also founded Natá de los Caballeros in the year $1522$. This settlement was established in an indigenous zone to help organize the encomiendas (labor systems) and facilitate the exploitation of local resources.

Indigenous Tribes and Resistance to Spanish Conquest

When the Spaniards arrived at the Isthmus, several major indigenous tribes occupied the territory. In the Darién region, the Cuevas were a prominent tribe. In the western reaches of the Isthmus, the Ngäbe and Guaymíes were major groups, while the Buglé inhabited the western interior. Along the Caribbean coast and the archipelagos, the Guna (or Kuna) were settled. The Teribes (also known as Naso) were located in the Bocas del Toro area, and the Bribris lived in the border zone near contemporary Costa Rica.

The arrival of the Spanish was met with significant resistance. Two tribes in particular, the Cuevas and the Ngäbe (Guaymíes), actively confronted the Spanish invaders. These tribes were led by figures known as Caciques, who served as chiefs or leaders. The Caciques were responsible for directing their people, organizing the territory, managing social life, and defending their land. Notable examples of these leaders include Cacique Urracá, who famously directed the resistance against Spanish encroachment to defend his territory, and Cacique Careta.

African Cimarrones, Palenques, and Resistance

The colonial period also saw the rise of resistance among enslaved Africans. Escaped African slaves who sought their freedom were known as cimarrones. These individuals fled from their masters and established independent communities called palenques. Palenques were typically located in remote, protected areas far from Spanish settlements, where cimarrones could live freely and organize resistance efforts. Notable palenques included the Palenque of Bayano and the Palenque of Portobelo.

Prominent figures in the cimarrón movement included leaders such as Bayano and Felipillo, both of whom rebelled against the Spanish Crown. Interestingly, the cimarrones occasionally formed strategic alliances with foreign powers to undermine Spanish control. A significant example is the alliance between the cimarrones and Francis Drake. In this collaboration, the cimarrones provided Drake with vital information about the terrain, offered guides to help him navigate, and shared intelligence regarding the transport of gold and silver. This combined effort allowed for successful attacks against Spanish caravans and cities.

The Fairs of Portobelo and Their eventual Decline

The Fairs of Portobelo were periodic commercial gatherings that served as the heartbeat of the colonial economy. During these fairs, ships arriving from Spain would exchange European products for American wealth, specifically gold and silver. Merchants from all over the Americas converged on Portobelo to buy, sell, and trade cargo. However, these fairs eventually disappeared due to several factors: constant attacks by pirates and corsairs, the general decline of the Spanish commercial system, and the opening of new, more direct trade routes that bypassed the Isthmian transit.

Foreign Threats: Pirates, Corsairs, and the Burning of Panama

Panama's colonial history was marked by conflict with foreign agents, specifically pirates and corsairs. The terms differ in legal status: a corsair was a navigator authorized by their government (via a letter of marque) to attack enemy ships, making their actions legal within the framework of their nation. A pirate, however, was a delinquent who attacked ships and settlements for personal gain without the permission of any government.

A pivotal moment of insecurity occurred in the year $1671$ when the pirate Henry Morgan attacked and burned the original city of Panama (Panama Viejo). This devastating event led to the relocation of the city to its current site.

The Role of the Catholic Church in Colonial Society

The Catholic Church was an essential institution that profoundly influenced the social, cultural, and political life of the colony. Its importance was centered on four main pillars: the evangelization of indigenous populations through the imposition of the Catholic religion, the education of the populace, the control of social life and norms, and the provision of political support to the Spanish Crown.

The Path to Independence (1821)

The push for independence began in the interior of the country. The "First Cry of Independence" (Primer Grito de Independencia) took place in the Villa de Los Santos on the $10$th of November in the year $1821$. This local uprising initiated the broader movement that culminated on the $28$th of November in the year $1821$, when Panama officially declared its independence from Spain, bringing the Hispanic/Colonial epoch to a close.

Questions & Discussion

Question 1: What are the 4 eras of Panamanian History? Answer: The 4 eras of Panamanian History are the Pre-Hispanic era, the Hispanic/Colonial era, the Era of Union with Colombia, and the Republican era.

Question 2: What is the second era of Panamanian history and what years does it cover? Answer: The second era of Panamanian history is the Hispanic/Colonial era. It spans from $1501$ with the arrival of the Spaniards until the $28$th of November in $1821$ with the independence of Panama from Spain.

Question 3: Into what was the Isthmus of Panama transformed in relation to commerce during the Colonial era? Answer: The Isthmus transformed into a strategic point for transporting the riches of America toward Spain and vice versa.

Question 4: What products were transported and exchanged on the route through Panama during the Colonial Era? Answer: Through here were transported and exchanged gold and silver extracted from Peru, pearls, spices, luxury products, textiles, tools, European merchandise, and African slaves.

Question 5: What were the routes created by the Spanish Crown in the Colonial or Hispanic Era? Answer: The routes created by the Spanish Crown in this era were: Camino Real, Camino de Cruces, and the trans-isthmian route that connected the Pacific with the Atlantic.

Question 6: Explain important characteristics of the Camino Real. Answer: One of the most important characteristics of the Camino Real is that it was the main terrestrial route used to transport riches; other characteristics are that it was a completely terrestrial route, it was one of the first roads built by the Spaniards, it was difficult and dangerous, it connected the city of Panama with Portobelo, and it was used mainly for transporting gold and silver.

Question 7: Explain important characteristics of the Camino de Cruces. Answer: The Camino de Cruces has important characteristics such as being a mixed route, combining terrestrial and fluvial stretches using the Chagres River; it was easier and more efficient than the Camino Real and better for heavy cargo; it connected the city of Panama with the Caribbean and was also very comfortable for transporting merchandise and wealth.

Question 8: Who was the first explorer to travel the coast of the Isthmus, in what year, and what areas did he cover? Answer: He was Rodrigo de Bastidas in $1501$, traveling the Caribbean Sea coast, from present-day Colombia to part of the Panamanian littoral.

Question 9: Mention which aboriginal tribes existed on the Isthmus with the arrival of the Spaniards. Answer: The main aboriginal tribes that existed were: Cuevas who were from the Darién region, the Ngäbe and Guaymíes in the west of the Isthmus, Buglé in the western region, the Guna or Kuna on the Caribbean coast and archipelagos, the Teribes or Naso in the area of Bocas del Toro, and the Bribris in the border zone with Costa Rica.

Question 10: In what year did Christopher Columbus arrive at the Isthmus and what coast did he travel? Answer: Christopher Columbus arrived in the year $1502$, traveling the Caribbean Sea coast, besides exploring zones like the current province of Colón and various islands in Bocas del Toro.

Question 11: What was the first city founded on the Isthmus, in what year, and who founded it? Answer: The first city founded was Santa María la Antigua del Darién, in the year $1510$ by Vasco Núñez de Balboa and Martín Fernández de Enciso, the latter being the principal leader.

Question 12: When was the second city founded on the Isthmus, on what coast, and who founded it? Answer: The second city founded was Nuestra Señora de la Asunción de Panama (Panama Viejo) in the year $1519$ by Pedro Arias Dávila on the coast of the Pacific Ocean.

Question 13: Explain in what the Fairs of Portobelo consisted. Answer: They consisted of periodic meetings where boats arrived from Spain, they exchanged European products and American riches like gold and silver. Merchants from America attended to buy, sell, and exchange products.

Question 14: When was Nombre de Dios founded? Answer: This city was founded in $1510$ by Diego de Nicuesa.

Question 15: Mention 2 aboriginal tribes that confronted the Spaniards. Answer: Two tribes that confronted the Spaniards were the Cuevas and the Ngäbe or Guaymíes.

Question 16: Who were the caciques? Give 2 examples. Answer: The caciques were the chiefs or leaders of the indigenous tribes in charge of directing their people, organizing the territory, social life, and defending them. Examples include Cacique Urracá and Cacique Careta.

Question 17: Who were the cimarrones and palenques? Answer: The cimarrones were the escaped African slaves who fled from their masters for their freedom. The palenques were the places where the cimarrones lived, generally remote and protected places.

Question 18: Mention 2 cimarrones who rebelled against the Spanish Crown. Answer: Bayano and Felipillo were cimarrones who rebelled against the Spanish Crown.

Question 19: Mention 2 palenques that existed on the Isthmus. Answer: Two palenques that existed were the Palenque of Bayano and the Palenque of Portobelo, where cimarrones lived freely and organized resistance.

Question 20: What occurred in $1513$ and who discovered it? Answer: In $1513$, the South Sea (Mar del Sur) was discovered by Vasco Núñez de Balboa.

Question 21: Why did the Portobelo fairs disappear? Answer: They disappeared mainly due to attacks by pirates and corsairs, the decline of the Spanish commercial system, and new, more direct commercial routes.

Question 22: Explain the alliances of Francis Drake with the Cimarrones. Answer: These alliances consisted of collaboration to attack the Spaniards. The cimarrones knew the territory, so they helped Drake by serving as guides and giving him information about the transport of gold and silver to carry out attacks against caravans and Spanish cities.

Question 23: Explain the importance of Cacique Urracá. Answer: This cacique was important because he led the resistance and defended his territory against the Spaniards.

Question 24: When was the old city of Panama burned and who founded it? Answer: It was burned in $1671$ during the attack of the pirate Henry Morgan. It was founded by Pedro Arias Dávila.

Question 25: Explain the importance of the Camino Real. Answer: The importance of the Camino Real is that it was one of the main commercial routes of the Colonial Epoch; it allowed the transport of riches and connected the Pacific with the Caribbean, facilitating colonial commerce.

Question 26: What products were exported from Panama in the Colonial Era? Answer: Riches and products originating from America were exported primarily toward Spain, such as gold and silver, pearls, wax and hides, and agricultural products.

Question 27: Explain the foundation of Natá de los Caballeros. Answer: This foundation occurred as part of the Spanish expansion into the interior of the Isthmus. Founded in $1522$ by Pedro Arias Dávila, it was established in an indigenous zone to control the territory, organize encomiendas, and facilitate the exploitation of resources.

Question 28: Explain the importance of the Catholic Church in the colonial era. Answer: The Catholic Church was important because it influenced social, cultural, and political life. Its importance was based on: evangelizing indigenous people and teaching them the Catholic religion, educating the population, controlling social life, and supporting the Spanish Crown.

Question 29: When does the colonial era end? Answer: This era ends on the $28$th of November, $1821$, when the Isthmus declares its independence from Spain.

Question 30: What means of transport were used on the two routes created by the Spaniards? Answer: On the Camino Real they used mules, horses, and human carriage. On the Camino de Cruces they used watercraft and mules.

Question 31: Difference between a corsair and a pirate. Answer: A Corsair was a navigator who had permission from his government to attack enemy ships, acting in a legal way for his country. A Pirate was a delinquent of the sea who attacked ships and towns without the permission of any government and for his own benefit.

Question 32: When did the first Cry of Independence of the Villa de Los Santos occur? Answer: It occurred on the $10$th of November in the year $1821$ in the Villa de Los Santos, initiating the independence of Panama from Spain.