The Decline of the Restoration, the Second Republic, and the Spanish Civil War

The Decline of the Spanish Restoration and the Crisis of 1898

Beginning in $1885$, the Spanish political system entered a state of decline following the death of King Alfonso XII. During the period when Alfonso XIII was a child, his mother, Queen María Cristina, served as the regent from $1885$ to $1902$. This era was defined by two critical developments: the Crisis of '$98$ and the emergence of Regenerationism.

The Crisis of '$98$ occurred in $1898$ when Spain lost its final overseas colonies, namely Cuba, Puerto Rico, and the Philippines, following the US-Spain war. During an era characterized by intense European imperialism, the loss of these territories transformed into a national tragedy and reflected the inadequacies of the existing political order. In response, a movement known as Regenerationism (regeneracionismo) arose. Led by intellectuals such as Joaquín Costa and prominent politicians like the Liberal leader Canalejas and the Conservative leader Maura, the movement aimed to dignify the political landscape and modernize Spanish society and culture.

The Constitutional Reign of Alfonso XIII ($1902$–$1923$)

In $1902$, Alfonso XIII came of age and took the throne, maintaining the Constitution of $1876$ and the traditional system of alternation in power known as turnismo. Two primary governments attempted reforms during this period. Maura, a Conservative, sought to eliminate caciquismo (political bossism) and corruption through the reform of electoral laws and local government, though he failed to reach these goals. Canalejas, a Liberal, introduced social reforms, most notably the controversial ley del candado, which restricted the establishment of new religious orders.

This era was marked by the fragmentation of the traditional political party system. The Catalan and Basque bourgeoisie shifted support toward nationalist parties, including the Regionalist League in Cataluña and the Basque Nationalist Party. Meanwhile, the middle and working classes gravitated toward republican parties and the PSOE, while trade unions like the UGT (founded in $1888$) and the CNT grew in strength. From $1909$ onward, several systemic crises destabilized the monarchy.

Major Crises of the Early $20^{th}$ Century

The Tragic Week (La Semana Trágica) erupted in Barcelona in $1909$ as a popular insurrection against the government’s decision to send troops to Morocco. The conflict was fueled by the fact that soldiers were primarily drawn from the working classes, as the wealthy could pay a fee to avoid military service. The resulting general strike was met with violent government repression.

In $1917$, three distinct problems converged to create a triple crisis. First, the military protested the promotion system, forming Juntas de Defensa. Second, a Parliamentary Assembly in Barcelona demanded regional autonomy for Cataluña. Third, trade unions called a general strike that resulted in brutal repression by the army. Following these events, from $1918$ to $1923$, worker movements became radicalized. Influenced by the Russian Revolution and economic hardship, the trienio bolchevique ($1918$–$1920$) saw intense unrest in Andalucía. In response, business owners hired gunmen for protection, and the state continued using harsh repressive tactics.

The Dictatorship of Miguel Primo de Rivera ($1923$–$1930$)

The collapse of the Restoration system was accelerated by the Disaster of Annual in $1921$, where numerous Spanish soldiers died in a catastrophic military defeat in Morocco. An investigation into the disaster accused high-ranking military officials of negligence. To prevent these findings from being confirmed, General Miguel Primo de Rivera carried out a coup d'état in $1923$ with the approval of King Alfonso XIII.

Primo de Rivera established a military dictatorship that lasted until $1930$. He suspended the Constitution of $1876$, dissolved parliament, and banned political parties and trade unions. The regime benefited from the international economic prosperity of the $1920$s. Domestically, industry was boosted through high tariffs on imports and government aid to large corporations. State monopolies were also established, including the Compañía Telefónica Nacional de España and CAMPSA, which held exclusive rights to petroleum and gasoline sales. Following the Alhucemas landing in $1925$, the war in Morocco concluded in $1927$.

The Fall of the Monarchy and the Pact of San Sebastián

Opposition to the dictatorship grew after $1927$ among intellectuals, students, and nationalist groups. Fearing the rising popularity of the republicans, Alfonso XIII withdrew his support for Primo de Rivera, leading to the dictator's resignation in January $1930$. The King attempted to restore the old constitutional order and called for municipal elections in April $1931$.

However, the monarchy's legitimacy was shattered due to the King's complicity with the dictatorship. In $1930$, republican, socialist, and Catalan-nationalist politicians signed the Pact of San Sebastián with the explicit goal of overthrowing the monarchy and establishing a republic. The text of the pact denounced a "falsified suffrage called by a dictatorial government" and described the King as one who had "violated the Constitution." The signers aimed to establish a Republic based on national sovereignty represented in a Constituent Assembly.

The Proclamation of the Second Republic and the Constitution of $1931$

In the municipal elections of $12^{th}$ April $1931$, while monarchists won overall due to the manipulation of caciquismo in rural areas, republicans dominated the major cities. This was interpreted as a democratic mandate for the Republic. Alfonso XIII went into exile, and on $14^{th}$ April $1931$, a provisional government headed by Niceto Alcalá-Zamora proclaimed the Second Republic.

Elections for a Constituent Parliament led to the approval of the Constitution of $1931$. Key features of this document included:

• The definition of Spain as a democratic republic of workers of all classes, organized in a regime of liberty and justice (Article $1$).
• The state having no official religion (Article $3$), with religious confessions treated as associations subject to special laws (Article $26$).
• Recognition of municipal and regional autonomy.
• A broad declaration of rights, including freedom of conscience (Article $27$), freedom of expression (Article $34$), and the legalization of civil marriage and divorce (Article $43$).
• The establishment of universal suffrage, granting both sexes over the age of $23$ the same electoral rights (Article $36$). This made Spain a pioneer in female suffrage.

The Bienio Reformista ($1931$–$1933$)

Following the constitutional approval, Manuel Azaña became Prime Minister while Niceto Alcalá-Zamora served as President. This period was characterized by extensive modernization efforts. The Agrarian Reform of September $1932$ allowed for the expropriation of uncultivated large estates to be leased to landless peasants, managed by the Instituto de Reforma Agraria (IRA). However, the IRA lacked sufficient funding, leading to frustration among the peasantry.

Other reforms included military reform, which required officers to swear loyalty to the Republic, and education reform, which increased the budget significantly to open $13,000$ new schools in two years. The goal was to provide free, secular education as a driver of social progress. The Patronato de Misiones Pedagógicas ($1931$) brought literacy, libraries, film, and theater to rural regions, involving intellectuals like Federico García Lorca, Miguel Hernández, and María Zambrano. Additionally, the Estatuto de Autonomía de Cataluña was passed in $1932$, and labor reforms introduced minimum wages and accident insurance.

Opposition and the Rise of the Right

The reforms faced fierce opposition. Large landowners, the Church, and the military viewed them as too radical, leading to General Sanjurjo's failed coup in August $1932$. Conversely, anarchists and union activists felt the reforms did not go far enough. Violent clashes occurred in places like Castilblanco (Badajoz) and Casas Viejas (Cádiz), where a peasant uprising was brutally suppressed in $1933$. These tensions were compounded by the effects of the global Great Depression, which caused agricultural and mining declines and rising unemployment.

In September $1933$, Azaña resigned and new elections were held. Right-wing groups formed a coalition under the Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas (CEDA), led by José María Gil Robles. The CEDA supported Alejandro Lerroux's Radical Party to form a government, initiating the Bienio Conservador. This government halted most reforms, revised religious legislation, and granted amnesty to those involved in Sanjurjo's coup.

The Revolution of $1934$ and the Popular Front

In October $1934$, the appointment of three CEDA ministers triggered a general strike and a full-scale social insurrection in Asturias. Miners occupied mining areas to form a revolutionary government, but the army brutally repressed them. Simultaneously, Lluís Companys proclaimed a Catalan State within a Spanish Federal Republic, which failed and led to the abolition of the Generalitat.

Instability and corruption in the Radical Party eventually brought down the coalition, leading to the February $1936$ elections. The Popular Front, a left-wing coalition, narrowly won and resumed reforms while granting amnesty to the $1934$ revolutionaries. However, social unrest surged. Radical sectors lead by Largo Caballero (UGT) and anarchists pushed for revolution, while right-wing leaders like Calvo Sotelo and the fascist-style Falange Española led by José Antonio Primo de Rivera encouraged rebellion.

Outbreak of the Spanish Civil War

The catalysis for the war occurred on $12^{th}$ July $1936$, when right-wing gunmen assassinated Lieutenant Castillo of the Assault Corps. In retaliation, his comrades assassinated Calvo Sotelo on $13^{th}$ July. On $17^{th}$ July $1936$, the military rebellion began in Morocco, spreading to the peninsula the following day. Led by Generals Sanjurjo, Franco, and Mola, the coup was supported by Carlists, monarchists, Falangists, and most of the Church.

Spain was divided into two zones:

• The Republican Zone: Controlled most of Aragón, the Cantabrian Coast, Cataluña, the Levante, Madrid, and nearly all of Andalucía. While they held the industrial base and state finances, agricultural resources were scarce. Popular organizations launched a social revolution, but lack of coordination between civilian militias and the later-formed Ejército Popular weakened their defense.
• The Rebel Zone: Dominated northern Castilla, Galicia, northwest Extremadura, Navarra, and the islands. Though they held only $20\%$ of industrial production, they controlled $70\%$ of agricultural and livestock resources. A central command, the Junta de Defensa Nacional, was established in Burgos, and Franco was named Generalísimo and head of state in autumn $1936$. All supporting forces were unified into the FET y de las JONS.

International Dimensions and the Course of War

Internationally, the UK and France promoted a non-intervention agreement signed by $27$ countries, which was consistently ignored. The rebels received soldiers and weapons from Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy in exchange for minerals like magnesium and copper. The Republic received support from the USSR and Mexico, along with the International Brigades—foreign volunteers organized by the Communist International. Intellectuals like Ernest Hemingway and George Orwell also supported the republican side.

The war moved through several stages:

• Advance on Madrid ($1936$–$1937$): The rebels reached Madrid in October $1936$, but were held back by the International Brigades and Soviet tanks. The rebels suffered defeats at the Battles of Jarama and Guadalajara.
• The Northern Front ($1937$): Franco's troops shifted north, with the German Condor Legion bombing Guernica on $26^{th}$ April $1937$. Bilbao fell in the summer, followed by Santander and Asturias, securing industry for the rebels.
• The Final Stages ($1937$–$1939$): The rebels reached the Mediterranean in $1938$, isolating Cataluña. The massive Battle of the Ebro in July $1938$ ended in a republican defeat. Barcelona was taken in January $1939$, and Madrid fell in March. The war ended on $1^{st}$ April $1939$.

Civilian Experience and Consequences

Daily life during the war was defined by bombing, food scarcity, and reprisals. Cities like Madrid and Barcelona suffered constant aerial attacks, forcing residents into underground shelters. Hunger was rampant due to low production and black markets; in the republican zone, people resorted to eating orange peels, beetroot leaves, or anything available to supplement meager rations. Political reprisals, or paseos ("taking them for a walk"), resulted in the execution of union leaders and intellectuals by rebels, and landowners or clergy by republicans.

The consequences were devastating:

• Between $500,000$ and $600,000$ total deaths ($160,000$ in combat, $150,000$ through repression, and others from bombing or disease).
• An estimated $40,000$ to $50,000$ post-war executions.
• Massive displacement, with $450,000$ refugees fleeing to France in $1939$ where many were kept in harsh beach internment camps. Approximately $22,000$ went to Mexico.
• Economic ruin, with industrial production falling by a third, agricultural production by $25\%$, and livestock by half. Around $500,000$ homes were destroyed.

Questions & Discussion

Questions: What problems of the system of the Restoration does the text denounce? What do those who signed the pact want to do? Who signed this pact? Answer: The Pact of San Sebastián denounces the violation of the Constitution by the King, the falsified suffrage, and the influence of caciquismo. The signers—politicians from republican, socialist, and Catalan-nationalist backgrounds—wanted to abolish the monarchy and establish a Republic based on national sovereignty.

Questions: Explain what regenerationism was and how it is related to the Crisis of '$98$. Answer: Regenerationism was an intellectual and political movement born from the national failure of the loss of the colonies in $1898$. It sought to fix the corruption of the Restauración system and modernize Spain through education and political dignity.

Questions: Relate the Disaster of Annual to the coup d'état by Primo de Rivera. Answer: The Disaster of Annual in $1921$ led to a public investigation that threatened to expose military and monarchical negligence. To hide these failures and restore order, Primo de Rivera staged his coup in $1923$.

Questions: Read and explain Article $1$ of the Constitution of $1931$. What type of political regime was established? Answer: Article $1$ established that Spain is a democratic republic of workers, where all power comes from the people. It created a democratic, non-confessional republic that recognized regional autonomy.

Historical Analysis of Manuel Azaña: Manuel Azaña reflected on the tragedy of civil war, stating that "In a civil war one does not triumph against a brother… whether it is possible or not to continue living together." This highlights the ethical tragedy where the destruction of the opponent does not resolve the underlying ideological clash.

Historical Diary Entry (Antonio Borregón): Antonio Borregón describes the desperation of hunger, where people brought orange peels to pharmacies to trade for saccharin to trick their stomachs. This exemplifies the frequency of total deprivation during the conflict.