Chapter 3: Significance of Materials Used in Art

3.1 Learning Outcomes

  • Describe the differences among valuation of art materials, especially with regard to intrinsic qualities of raw material versus produced objects

  • Discuss the differences between monetary and cultural values for works of art

  • Discuss the idea of “borrowed” significance that comes with the re-use of components from previous artworks

  • Describe the significance of value added to objects by complex artistic processes or by changing tastes in different eras

3.2 Introduction

  • Materials used in art evoke response, aid understanding, and contribute meaning and meaning; these materials might make a work more or less important or valuable and can carry associations not inherent in the essential form

  • Example given: recognizing a vase as a Louis Comfort Tiffany (1848-1933, USA) Favrile glass vase (Figure 3.1); knowing the creator, material, and special processes adds to perception and appreciation

  • Linking the work to an important artist, innovative technique, a significant period in American decor and manufacturing/marketing, or a valuation based on collectability

  • Three-dimensional forms (sculpture, architecture) more likely to use costly/precious materials (gold, silver, gems, marble, bronze)

  • Distinctions in material choices for drawing/painting affect meanings; e.g., applying gold leaf (22K gold) can increase both monetary and cultural value

  • Monetary value: amount a buyer is willing to pay, including artist factors/material costs into the price

  • Cultural value: perceived quality or merit of the work according to a culture’s standards of artistic importance or excellence

  • If values are high, owner’s reputation and status are elevated

  • Focus here on intrinsic materials; how they are worked, used, and combined remains significant

3.3 Utility and Value of Materials

  • Early artworks used readily available materials: mud, clay, twigs, straw, minerals, plants; used directly or with slight alteration (e.g., grinding minerals with water for cave paintings)

  • Experimentation was part of process; much of it is lost, but some evidence remains via works, materials, and tools

  • Example: earthenware vessel; mixing a type of earth with water yields a flexible clay; handbuilt by coiling and smoothing to a conical-bottom vessel for coal-fired heating

  • Incising marks (twig/string) for decoration and grip

  • Jeulmun pottery (c. 3,500 BCE, late Neolithic Korea): comb-patterned (Jeulmun) pottery; clay varieties differ in color, texture, density, adherence, etc.

  • Pottery wheel invention allowed throwing clay on a rotating platform, enabling thinner walls, more uniform shapes/sizes, and broader decorative possibilities; also enabled molds for serial production

  • By Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), Xuande period (1426-1435) porcelain in imperial cobalt blue and white demonstrates technical innovation and refinement

  • Mineral resources like kaolin and petuntse enabled porcelain production; porcelain became highly refined and widely emulated (European interest): tableware/decoration

  • European porcelain history: trade from China; 16th century; Meissen porcelain in 1708 (Ehrenfried Walther von Tschirnhaus and Johann Friedrich Böttger) under Augustus II; monopoly eventually broken as secret leaked and new factories opened (Vienna by 1717; spread across Europe)

  • 19th-century example: commemorative pitcher by American Porcelain Manufacturing Company, showing how techniques and materials linked wealth, status, and ceremonial value (Figure 3.7)

  • Ceramics decorated with nature motifs, myths, power, and everyday life; walls, tombs, and Greek vessels show use of images and inscriptions that add meaning

  • Texts and books: development of codex (bound pages) from scrolls; parchment, vellum ( calfskin ) and animal skins; illuminated manuscripts (gold/silver ink, gold/silver areas) enhanced cultural value of important works (Figures 3.10–3.11)

3.4 Precious Materials, Spolia, and Borrowed Glory

  • Sacred or royal works often used lavish materials (vellum, silk, linen, wool, ivory, gold, silver, gems, rare minerals); use refined craftsmanship to foreground precious properties

  • Porphyry: imperial purple marble; restricted to royal use; sparked connotations of imperial significance; later mines abandoned in 5th c. CE led to pillage/ reuse that transferred royal significance to conquerors

  • Porphyry burial containers prized in antiquity and the Middle Ages; Constantine’s daughter Constantina entombed in a porphyry sarcophagus with pagan/Christian motifs; cupids (putti) and grape imagery connected to Bacchus/Dionysus and Christian Eucharist motifs by reinterpretation

  • Constantine’s era marks transition from pagan to Christian imagery; layered symbolism ties imperial power to Christian conquest narratives

  • Charlemagne (r. 768-814 CE) used pillaged porphyry columns inside Aachen Palatine Chapel arches; design echoes mausolea and late Roman/early Byzantine church architecture

  • Charlemagne crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 800 CE; the use of spoila signified revival of Roman prestige under a Christian ruler

  • Holy Roman Emperor Henry II (r. 973-1024) commissioned a lavish pulpit (1014 completion) with trefoil shape, gilt copper panels, inlays, enamel, powdered glass, filigree, and three ivory panels depicting pagan myths (Egyptian-made panels); reused porphyry columns, gemstones, and ivory illustrate spolia’s layered connotations of conquest/heritage

  • Frederick I (Barbarossa, r. 1155-1190) and wife Beatrice commissioned a chandelier (1165–1170) to illuminate the chapel; Charlemagne shrine later enhanced by Frederick II (r. 1220-1250) to elevate Charlemagne’s sainthood

  • Imperial power and heavenly light are interwoven in rich material forms; imperial works often incorporated objects/decorative details from imperial Roman works (e.g., Augustus cameo on Cross of Lothair II)

  • Cross of Lothair (c. 1000) gilded with gemstones and pearls; rock-crystal seal bearing Lothair II’s portrait; emphasized wealth and power; associated with Otto III’s era

  • These elements link royal prestige, Christian symbolism, and imperial succession

  • Implication: imperial works often mirrored Heavenly Jerusalem concepts; they served both devotion and display of wealth, power, and lineage

  • Some items like the Screen of Charlemagne (Figure 3.22) and Stavelot Altarpiece (Figure 3.23) survive only as drawings/fragments due to removal/sale; their existence shows how material richness can become a stored wealth/wealth for other uses

3.5 Liquidation of Treasures

  • Rich material components can be dismantled or sold, storing wealth to fund famine relief or new construction; many grand shrines/ liturgical fittings disappeared this way

  • Examples: Screen of Charlemagne; Stavelot Altarpiece documented through drawings and fragments rather than surviving intact

  • Such disappearances show how the perceived sacred/heritage value can shift to material wealth value for practical needs

3.6 Wood, Inlay, and Lacquer

  • Wood choices across eras reflect value, wearability, and fashion; different woods associated with periods: Lindenwood/Limewood (Middle Ages), Mahogany (18th c. England/Scotland), Oak (Arts & Crafts, mid-19th to early 20th c.), lacquered goods (Yuan Dynasty China)

  • Northern European sculpture in Romanesque/Gothic periods favored limewood for fine carving; often polychromed for lifelike effect (e.g., The Throne of Wisdom)

  • Mahogany’s rise with European exploration; prized for beauty/strength; used in luxury furniture for status symbols (e.g., table for chinaware; Figure 3.25)

  • Arts and Crafts movement (mid-19th c. England) emphasized handmade work during industrialization; sought authenticity and natural materials; Daniel Pabst cabinet as exemplar (Figures 3.26–3.27) with elaborate inlays to emphasize craftsmanship; woods used include walnut, maple, white pine

  • Inlay techniques: cutting/mitting one material into another for visual contrast and craftsmanship display

  • Lacquer: resin from trees in continental Asia; hardened into a durable, water-resistant plastic; Chinese carved lacquer is distinct; 200 layers typical; base is wood; red cinnabar (mercury sulfide) often used for tinting (Figure 3.28)

  • Carved lacquer trays from Yuan Dynasty show intricate scenes; labor-intensive process increases cultural value despite resin’s modest intrinsic material value

3.7 Intrinsic Values and Enhanced Worth of Metals

  • Metals valued for intrinsic properties and artistic use; early metals include iron and bronze; forging and casting among earliest complex art processes

  • Brass (copper alloyed with tin/lead) and bronze used for large monuments; durable, weather-resistant, capable of hollow casting to save material while preserving detail

  • Mastery of forging/casting signals significant planning and technical skill; enhances the perceived worth of the object beyond raw material value

3.8 Rare Materials and Prohibited Uses

  • Economic and ecological factors push material choices beyond aesthetics; ivory is a key example due to elephant conservation concerns

  • Ivory and related mammoth tusks were highly valued for sculpture and luxury items; exploitation contributed to scarcity and endangerment of elephants

  • Modern practice: boycott ivory sales to protect species; even antiquities are scrutinized for ethical sourcing

3.9 Material Connotations of Class or Station

  • Materials and components can communicate social/political status beyond function

  • Do Ho Suh’s Some/One employs military dog tags to construct a monumental robe-like form; signifies imperialistic power and critiques the social/collective identity shaped by compulsory military service

  • Do Ho Suh’s work uses material choices to discuss personal and national identity, power, and the relationship between individuals and collectives