Black History: A Critical Review (Excerpted from Maulana Karenga)

BLACK HISTORY: A CRITICAL REVIEW

1. Black History: African Background

1.1 Introduction

  • Importance of Black History:

    • Black History is highlighted as the first field of study in Black Studies for several reasons.

    • It emphasizes the necessity of historical perspective in understanding social and human realities (Keto, 1994).

    • Black Studies encompasses history but is broader in scope; historical understanding underpins the study of origins, developments, and meanings of various phenomena.

    • Malcolm X (1965:8) asserts, "of all our studies history is best prepared to reward our research."

  • Ongoing Project of Historical Recovery:

    • The act of historical recovery is crucial in all fields of Black Studies, termed sankofa (an Akan word meaning "to return and recover it").

    • Sankofa involves revisiting African history to utilize its resources for improving the present and enriching the future.

    • The Sankofa bird symbolizes this quest for knowledge by demonstrating the need to reach back for cultural understanding. (Niangoran-Bouah, 1984, Vol. I:210)

    • This process is central to Black Studies, aiding scholars in discovering critical paradigms of African thought and practice.

    • Such data is used to develop the discipline and address contemporary issues.

1.2 Definition

  • Definition of History:

    • History is defined as the struggle and record of humans involved in reshaping the world to reflect their image and interests.

    • To give the world a human form signifies shaping it in ways favorable to human existence rather than detrimental.

    • History thus involves a collective human endeavor aiming at self-defense, development, and self-realization.

  • Definition of African or Black History:

    • Black history is characterized as the struggle of Africans to shape the world according to their interests and perspective, enriching global diversity and contributing positively to human progression.

    • History is portrayed as a practice directed at self-construction, social construction, and world construction.

    • As Africans advanced in various fields (agriculture, medicine, science, etc.), they fostered civilizations that enhanced humanity as a whole (Jackson, 1980; Diop, 1974; 1991).

  • Characteristics of History:

    1. Human: Encompasses the full diversity of human experience.

    2. Social: Concerns people in specific societal contexts and their relations with others and nature.

    3. Conflictual: Full of contradictions and struggles against major oppositions:

    • Nature

    • Society

    • Others

    • Self

    1. Fluid: History is in constant movement and change.

    2. Manageable: History can be shaped through conscious human intervention rather than being solely dictated by external forces.

1.3 The Origins in East Africa

  • Human Origins in Africa:

    • Contrary to myths placing human origins in Mesopotamia, research supports that modern humans originated in Africa.

    • Phillipson (1985:60) states that fully modern humans (H.s. sapiens) existed in southern Africa over 100,000 years ago.

    • About 35,000 years ago, human engagement in trade and cultural development began diverging from sheer survival (Curtin et al, 1990:41).

    • The establishment of agricultural practices around 10,000 years ago allowed cultural expansion.

    • Around 8,000 B.C.E., Egypt's habitation and cultivation in the Nile Valley began (Rice, 1990).

1.4 The Nile Valley Civilizations

  • Nubia:

    • Nubia’s history spans from approximately 3900 B.C.E. to 1400 C.E. (Adams, 1977; Wenig, 1978).

    • Defined into four periods, pre-Kerma (3900-2500 B.C.E.), Kerma (2500-1500 B.C.E.), Napata (900-270 B.C.E.), and Meroe (195-320 C.E.).

    • Pre-Kerma Period:

    • Emergence of a royal dynasty with agricultural development and trade with Egypt.

    • Kerma Kingdom:

    • Unified people under a strong political system, notable for its architecture and trade networks.

    • Napata:

    • Kushite kings expanded influence into Egypt, establishing the 25th Dynasty.

    • Meroe:

    • Transitioned capital brings advanced industrial centers, notably in iron.

  • Egypt:

    • Recognized as a pinnacle of ancient African achievement (Diop, 1991); Bruce Trigger asserts it as the cradle of civilization (Trigger, 1983:1).

    • Contributions in spirituality, ethics, architecture, science, mathematics, and literature.

    • Significant concepts include resurrection, the immortality of the soul, and righteous living (Karenga, 1994; Diop, 1991).

    • Architectural marvels include the construction of the pyramids, praised for their aesthetic and scientific significance.

  • Ethiopia/Aksum:

    • Aksum’s genesis linked to trade relations with Arabian peoples and marked by significant agricultural and iron-centered advancements.

    • Aksumite monuments (obelisks) represent the power and complexity of the civilization, along with inscriptions emphasizing justice and ethical rule.

  • The Legacy of Egyptian Civilization:

    • Egypt's vast influence spanned fields of spirituality, ethics, science, and literature, leaving an enduring legacy of knowledge that contributed to subsequent philosophical traditions (Diop, 1991; Bernal, 1991; Breasted, 1934).

1.5 The Western Sudanic Civilizations

  • Ghana, Mali, and Songhai:

    • Interconnected civilizations characterized by armies, scholarly pursuits, and Islamic influences.

    • The University of Timbuktu emerged as a center for diverse scholarly activities covering trigonometry, astronomy, grammar, and more.

1.6 The Moorish Empire in Spain

  • The Moorish conquest of Spain (begun in 711) led to advancements in agriculture, architecture, and scholarship that significantly influenced European culture (Jayyusi, 2000; Kennedy, 1997).

2. BLACK HISTORY: Africans in America

2.1 Introduction

  • Not intended to provide exhaustive details, this section focuses on significant phenomena and historical figures that shaped Black history.

    • Emphasis on Black historical agency, highlighting their roles as active participants (producers and products) in history rather than mere subjects.

    • Aims to showcase Blacks meeting challenges with resilience, emphasizing development alongside survival.

2.2 Egypt, Mali, and the Olmecs

  • Evidence suggests that Africans reached America before the transatlantic slave trade, possibly between 1200 B.C.E. and 1312 C.E.

    • Ivan Van Sertima’s work demonstrates an African presence in Olmec civilization, highlighting contributions to Mesoamerican culture.

    • Claims supported by various scholars, including discussion of the colossal heads' features representing Africanoid characteristics.

  • Van Sertima's hypothesis includes Nubian contributions from the 25th Dynasty and evidence of explorations by Mali Emperor Abubakari II in the early 14th century.

    • Abubakari II’s voyages purportedly aimed at transatlantic exploration, leading to discussions about the potential of these early African maritime efforts.