AP Euro Themes

Interaction of Europe and the World to 1815

Explorers established global trade affecting prosperity, consumption, commerce, and national rivalries.
Europeans colonized the Americas and imposed their social institutions.
Intellectuals analyzed alien cultures and cataloged flora and fauna.
Race theory justified slavery. Abolitionists objected on humanitarian and religious grounds.

Interaction of Europe and the World since 1815

Industrialization and nationalism expanded control in Asia and Africa beyond the periphery.
Cultural exposure influenced art and led to scientific racism. Imperialism contributed to the First World War.
Enlightenment belief in citizenship, popular sovereignty, equality, and liberty influenced opposition to Europe's global domination.
Europe's global role diminished in the 1900s. Non-European migration challenged European identity.

Poverty and Prosperity to 1815

Europe dominated global commerce and developed a money economy.
New commercial goods and methods provided improved standard of living resulting in population increase.
Commerce transformed preindustrial inco market economy justifying mercantilist competition and warfare.

Poverty and Prosperity since 1815

Market demands led to mechanized production requiring capital investment.
Industrialization changed social and economic relations, generated material prosperity, and ushered in mass society,
Injustices of capitalism led socialist arguments for state ownership and planning. Marxism inspired working class revolt.
World War I, the Great Depression, and World War It increased government economic management.
The Soviet bloc pursued socialism while Western welfare states used Keynesian capitalism.
Consumerism and European economic unity grew in the late 1900s.

Objective Knowledge and Subjective Visions to 1815

Trust in religious authority and ancient texts was challenged by direct philosophical and scientific inquiry.
Natural philosophers based objective scientific theories on observation and experimentation.
Artists, musicians, and writers continued to draw on classical subjects and motifs.
Growing acceptance of rational, mechanistic Newtonian universe governed by natural laws. Systems developed to organize knowledge of plants, animals, and minerals.

Objective Knowledge and Subjective Visions since 1815

Scientific reasoning was applied to political, social, and economic issues producing ideologies. The arts reflected such thinking.
New scientific discoveries and theories challenged ordered reason and objective truth. Quantum mechanics and relativity surpassed Newtonian physics and sowed uncertainty about the physical universe. Freud emphasized the irrationality of the human mind.
Artists and intellectuals produced subjective interpretations of reality through existential philosophy, modern art, and postmodernism.

States and Other Institutions of Power to 1815

Unified Christendom shattered as the New Monarchs claimed greater authority over law and social institutions, including religion.
Military revolution required steady revenue increasing state control of the economy.
Rise of secular power critical to success of Protestant Reformation.
Peace of Westphalia created an international system of independent sovereign states interacting through war and diplomacy.
Absolutism concentrated authority in monarchs who often claimed to rule by divine right. Constitutional governments shared power between monarchs and representative institutions.
Education, publishing, and prosperity generated public opinion on Enlightenment theories of social contract and natural rights.

States and Other Institutions of Power since 1815

Congress of Vienna reestablished ancient regimes and sought to maintain the balance of power.
Political revolutions and industrialization shifted power from monarchies and aristocracies to parliaments.
Expanded suffrage increased citizen participation, and mass political parties developed.
Revolutions, nationalism, industrialization, new alliances, and overseas competition upset the balance of power and led to war.
Political and economic crises gave rise to totalitarian regimes that challenged parliamentary governments.
New organizations like the League of Nations and United Nations developed international law and methods to resolve disputes. Europe moved toward unification in the secular European Union.

Individual and Society to 1815

Three estates: clergy, nobility, commoners.
Family, religion, and landed wealth shaped social practices, values, and norms.
Protestants clashed with Catholics and each other to establish new religious practices and social values.
French Revolution ended feudal estates, and liberalism urged legal equality.

Individual and Society since 1815

The Industrial Revolution divided classes by wealth and labor. Middle class men and women operated in separate spheres. Industrialization negatively affected working classes but gradually raised standard of living.
Mass society is defined by consumerism, literacy, and leisure.
World War I removed old social and political elites and democratized society.
Soviet communism endorsed economic equality.
Fascist regimes subordinated individuals to states.
Western welfare states supported individuals.
European society emerged as pluralistic. Women gained greater rights and public roles. Immigration by religious and ethnic minorities challenged society.

Prelude: The Late Middle Ages, 1300 - 1450

Roman Catholic Church Influence (18)

Catholic and Orthodox Churches split in the Great Schism of 1054.
Holy Roman Emperor Henry IV submitted to Pope Gregory VII in the Investiture Contest (1077). Church power peaked under Pope Innocent III (1198-1216).
1096-1400s: Crusades brought Christian and Islamic worlds into conflict. Europeans recovered lost ancient knowledge preserved by Muslims. Mediterranean trade revived. Venetians sacked Constantinople during the Fourth Crusade (1204).
Inquisition established to root out heresy (1184).

Roman Catholic Church Decline

Philip IV of France (r. 1285-1314) challenged Pope Boniface VIlI and used Church resources to grow the French state.
1305-1377: Pope Clement V moved papacy to Avignon, France, during Babylonian Captivity.
1378-1417: Great Western Schism when Pope Gregory XI returned the papacy to Rome but the French elected a second pope. Papal prestige fell.
1300s-1400s: Reform efforts by English John Wycliffe and Czech Jan Hus suppressed.

Feudal Society

European civilization synonymous with borders of Christendom.
Medieval society was static and concerned with tradition.
Cosmological nature existed in a hierarchical Great Chain of Being descending from God to angels, demons, nobles, commoners, animals, plants, and earthly minerals. Humans bridged spiritual and earthly realms.
Stratified feudal society was divided in three classes/estates: church clergy, nobles, and commoners (peasants, serfs, townspeople).
Political authority was decentralized and rested on complex feudal relationships and obligations.
Combat was personal and guided by chivalric code.

Medieval Economy

Cities were few and small. Population was primarily rural.
Manorial land ownership by aristocratic nobles was the basis of wealth.
Manors were mostly self-sufficient. Trade was limited but revived by the 1200s.
Farming was done for subsistence. Common lands were available to the poor.
Energy was supplied by human, animal, wind, and water power.
Culture was shaped by local folk life. People held provincial rather than national self-identities. (They thought of themselves as being from Cornwall rather than England or from Bordeaux rather than France.)
Artisanal production and division of labor were simple and relied on family/ clan/ village cooperation.
News spread slowly through limited correspondence, limited trade, word of mouth, and the Church.

Late Medieval Demographic Crisis

Cold summers made shorter growing seasons and periodic famine during the Little Ice Age (c. 1300-c. 1850). Expanding glaciers wiped out Alpine villages, and Norse colonies in Greenland failed.
Millions starved during the Great Famine (1315-1322); 10%-25% of the population died. The elderly voluntarily starved to save young family members.
Cannibalism was widely reported.
Italian merchants imported Black Death (1346-1353) from Crimea. It spread by 1350 to almost every corner of Europe killing 40%- 50% of the population. Some Mediterranean areas suffered 75%-80% losses. The bubonic plague ravaged Europe periodically until 1721.

The Hundred Years War

1337-1453: England and France engaged in a series of conflicts for control of the French throne.
These conflicts gave rise to English and French nationalism.
Feudal armies were replaced by professional soldiers. English longbow archers outnumbered and killed 1,500 knights (nearly half of French nobility) at Agincourt (1415). The age of chivalry was drawing to an end.
16-year-old Joan of Arc led victory over English at Orleans (1429) boosting
French morale and turning the tide of the war.
England lost all territory in France except the port of Calais. The French Valois dynasty retained the throne.
English discontent with the loss contributed to the War of the Roses(1455-1487), a civil war for the English throne.

Mongol & Turk Invasions

Mongols advanced to Hungary (1242) but fell back to Kievan Rus. The Golden Horde ruled from Sarai on the Volga River. Eastern Slavs semi-isolated from western Europe; culturally oriented eastward for 200+ years. Alexander Nevsky and later princes of Moscow served the Mongols turning Muscovy into a powerful state. Grand Prince Ivan Ill stopped paying Mongol tribute in 1480.
Osman I founded the Ottoman Turk Empire (1299) in Anatolia on the Byzantine frontier. Murid I expanded into the Balkans. After the Battle of Kosovo (1389), Serbia was subjugated and Constantinople encircled. The last great crusade failed to stop the Turkish conquest of Bulgaria at Nicopolis (1396).

Period 1: Renaissance to Westphalia (1450 - 1648)

Interaction of Europe and the World

New technologies allowed Europeans to navigate oceans seeking trade and spreading Christianity.
The Columbian Exchange of people, goods, ideas, and diseases radically reshaped the global community.
Access to gold, spices, and luxury goods fueled the economic growth of European Atlantic states.
New commercial networks and a money economy grew.
The African slave trade was greatly expanded.
Mercantilism developed as a theory for managing far-flung competing global trading empires.

Poverty and Prosperity

Agriculture was commercialized. Feudal serfdom grew weaker in western Europe and stronger in central and eastern Europe where traditional peasant rights were limited.
Urban growth fueled social change and new patterns of interaction. Traditional political and social institutions were challenged.
Family remained the primary social and economic institution.
A consumer economy developed. Commercial and professional groups gained power.
Governments regulated issues of public morality.

Objective Knowledge and Subjective Visions

Revival of classical texts, Renaissance arts, humanism, new scholarship, religious pluralism, and printing challenged universal Christendom and led to a new scientific cosmology.
Truth shifted from the Church and classical authorities to observation of nature, experimentation, mathematics, and reasoning.
Humanism assessed the role of the individual. New theories offered secular explanations for human political behavior.
Reformations and wars disrupted the power and influence of the Church. A plurality of Christian doctrines and practices pushed religion from the public to the private realm.
Belief in alchemy and astrology persisted along with peasant oral traditions and folk culture.
Contact with Americans, Africans, and Asians expanded cultural horizons

States and Other Institutions of Power

Secular political theories explored the role of the state.
The struggle for sovereignty and military revolution centralized state power.
Nation-states emerged in England, France, and Spain.
Centralized monarchies led to absolutism. Constitutionalism developed to limit monarchical power.
Political and Church authorities wrestled for control of religion.
Religious pluralism splintered universal Christendom and led to war.
Competition between states extended to colonial empires.
Art served political agendas. Printing increased censorship.
The Peace of Westphalia laid the foundations of the modern international order and balance of power.

Individual and Society

Traditional agricultural aristocracy's power was challenged by the rise of commercial agriculture, bourgeoisie, and urban expansion.
Religious pluralism challenged universal Christendom.
The Renaissance and Reformations debated the role of women.
Exploration, colonization, printing, and the Reformations transformed social interactions.
Colonial peoples, urban migrants, and religious minorities were often marginalized. Witch hunts and pogroms persecuted victims.
Subsistence agriculture remained the norm for many. Traditions persisted in marriage patterns, gender roles, family economy, folk culture, communal norms, and beliefs in alchemy and astrology.

1.1 Intellectual Renaissance

Renaissance Italy

The Crusades revived Mediterranean trade: Asian silk, cotton, spices for European wool, metal, and furs. Italian textiles, mining, agriculture, and banking spurred development.
Italy divided by competing commercial city-states: Republics of Genoa and Venice (merchant oligarchies), Milan (Sforza family), Florence (Medici family), Rome (Papal States), and Kingdom of Naples (ruled by Aragon, Spain).
Use of the gold florin coin of Florence spread through Europe.
Hired condottieri mercenary captains advanced military science.
Sack of Rome by unpaid Hapsburg mercenaries (1527) ended the High Renaissance.

Italian Humanism: Values

Rising wealth and classical knowledge recovered from Islamic world and monastic libraries drove secularism and humanism.
Dante Alighieri and Petrarch led early humanist scholarship and wrote vernacular Italian.
Italy is seen as the cultural heir to ancient Rome. Refugee Byzantine scholars furthered classics after Constantinople fell (1453).
Leonardo Bruni viewed Renaissance as a new age and was the first to divide history into antiquity, medieval, and modern eras.
Civic humanism funded city beautification beyond cathedrals-plazas, fountains, sculpture, parks, and hospitals. Humanists advised princes and popes.

Italian Humanism: Education

Humanist liberal arts education included classical poetry, philosophy, history, rhetoric, grammar, logic, mathematics, and astronomy.
Pico della Mirandola's Dignity of Man epitomizes humanist pursuit of individual achievement, virtue, and knowledge.
Marsilio Ficino translated Plato and founded Florentine Academy.
Lorenzo Valla savored Epicurean pleasures, restored the use of classical Latin prose, and proved that the Donation of Constantine, in which Constantine transferred authority over the western Roman Empire to the pope, was a fraudulent document.
Well-rounded "Renaissance Men" were multitalented. Leonardo da Vinci was an artist (Mona Lisa, Last Supper), engineer, scientist, and inventor. Leon Battista Alberti imitated Roman architecture; analyzed mathematics, cryptography, cartography, and painting; and was priest and author of diverse subjects.

Italian Humanism: Secular Politics

Peace of Lodi (1454) used diplomacy to establish a balance of power in northern Italy. Francesco Sforza installed it in Milan.
Cosimo Medici used banking wealth to control the Republic of Florence without holding office. Established dynasty and patronized arts.
Niccolo Machiavelli advised rulers to eschew traditional Christian ethics in pursuit of greater power in The Prince (1513).
Francesco Guiccardini used government records and personal experience to analyze political motives in the History of Italy.
Baldassare Castiglione described gentlemanly etiquette in The Courtier.
Renaissance nobles were to have a liberal education, be martial, be graceful, and patronize arts. By 1616, 108 printed editions in several languages helped spread Renaissance values.

Italian Renaissance Art: Prestige

Filipo Brunelleschi turned to the Pantheon in Rome for techniques to construct the dome of Florence Cathedral, the first dome since antiquity.
Donatello sculpted nude bronze David for Cosimo Medici's courtyard. Lorenzo Medici was patron to Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Sandro Botticelli (Birth of Venus, Primavera).
Michelangelo sculpted marble Pietà, David, Moses; painted the Sistine Chapel's ceiling and altar wall for Popes Julius Il and Clement VIl; and built the dome of St. Peter's Basilica to restore papal prestige.
Raphael painted Vatican frescoes for Popes Julius Il and Leo X, including the School of Athens.
Andrea Palladio built villas in classical-inspired Palladian style.
"First Lady of the World" Isabella d'Este led Mantua and Italian fashion and was patron to Titian, Raphael, Bellini, and Leonardo.

Italian Renaissance Art: Individualism and Attributes

Art was commissioned by wealthy merchants, rulers, and popes to project power and prestige.
Architecture imitated Greek and Roman classical styles.
Many Italian paintings are frescoes-tempura on wet plaster. Oil painting spread south from northern Europe in the High Renaissance.
14th-century Giotto's lifelike paintings seeded Renaissance style.
Masaccio was the earliest Renaissance great painter. His frescoes had realistic figures and used geometry for linear perspective.
Leonardo da Vinci's Mona Lisa exemplifies techniques of chiaroscuro (light-dark contrast) and sfumato (soft borders).

The Printing Press

Before printing, books were hand-copied and rare. Charles V of France was famous for having 910 volumes. Canterbury Cathedral had 2,000 volumes and was probably the largest library in Christendom.
Paper was introduced to Europe via Islamic Spain by the 1300s.
Johann Gutenberg of Mainz used movable type to print indulgences in 1451 and the Bible in 1456. Printing spread through Germany by 1463 and through
Europe by 1490.
The merchant class understood that literacy improved business.
Bibles became common, ending the clerical monopoly on knowledge and laying the groundwork for the Reformation. Widely available texts on religion, history, science, and literature laid seeds of Enlightenment.

Northern Renaissance: Art

Dutch Jan Van Eyck (Giovanni Arnolfini) pioneered oil paint.
Dutch Pieter Brueghel the Elder depicted everyday life (Peasant Wedding, Peasant Dance, Winter Landscape).
Dutch Hieronymus Bosch painted surreal triptychs (Garden of Earthly Delights)
collected by Philip Il of Spain.
German Albrecht Dürer, known as the Leonardo of the North, corresponded with Italian artists, engraved (Knight, Death, and the Devil), and painted (Self-portrait, Martyrdom of 10,000).
German Hans Holbein the Younger (Henry VIII, Georg Giese, The Ambassadors) was the most famous portrait artist of the age.
Francis I of France brought Leonardo and Italian ideas north during the French occupation of Italy. Italian and Gothic architecture merged to produce French châteaus, especially in the Loire Valley.

Northern Renaissance: Writing

French Christine de Pizan (City of Ladies, 1405) explored famous women's worth and promoted female education.
French François Rabelais (Gargantua and Pantagruel, 1532-1564) wrote edgy,
satirical fantasy capturing Christian humanist philosophy.
French Michel de Montaigne's Essays viewed life with skepticism.
English William Shakespeare (Hamlet, Macbeth, Romeo & Juliet, Sonnets) and Christopher Marlowe (Doctor Faustus) explored the human condition and entertained.

Mannerism

1520 - 1600: Mannerist art was more stylized and less realistic than High Renaissance art with imbalanced compositions (Pontormo, Descent from the Cross), elongated figures (Parmigianino, Madonna with the Long Neck), and lurid colors (Tintoretto, Last Supper).
The distortion was emblematic of the tumultuous nature of the late 1500s.
Sofonisba Anguissola (Lucia, Minerva, and Europa Playing Chess) was the first serious female artist and court painter to Philip II of Spain.

Baroque Art: Sculpture and Architecture

1600 - 1750: Dramatic, extravagant, flamboyant ornamental art, architecture, and music radiated power and inspired awe. Baroque art was entwined with Church and monarchical efforts to reenergize the Catholic faith after the Protestant Reformation.
Gian Bernini (Ecstasy of Saint Teresa) designed the interior and piazza of Saint Peter's, Vatican. Passionate spirituality inspired piety.
Church facades (Santiago de Compostela, Spain; St. Paul's, by Christopher Wren, London), palaces (Versailles, France; Charlottenburg, Germany), and great buildings (Les Invalides, France) showcase grandiose architecture.

Baroque Art: Painting

Italian Caravaggio (Taking of Christ, Salome with Head of John the Baptist, David with Head of Goliath) dramatically spotlighted violent religious scenes reflecting the era's religious turmoil.
Italian Artemisia Gentileschi (Judith Slaying Holofernes, 1614-1620) was the first woman admitted to the Academy of Fine Arts of Florence.
Flemish Peter Paul Reubens (Marie de' Medici Cycle, 1622-1624) was known for painting plump, sensual nudes.
French Nicolas Poussin (Ashes of Phokion, 1648) was drawn to Classical themes.

Baroque Art: Music

German Johann Sebastian Bach (Brandenburg Concertos), English George
Frideric Handel (Messiah), and Italian Antonio Vivaldi (Four Seasons) composed masterpieces.
Tonal orchestral cantatas, sonatas, concertos, operas, and musical terminology developed.

Traditional Alchemy and Astrology

As astrologer, Italian Gerolamo Cardano believed nature is composed of matter (earth, water, air), celestial heat, and souls. As a mathematician/chess player/ gambler, he studied probability and binomials.
English John Dee mixed magic with science. He had a large library and was
Queen Elizabeth l's astrologer and adviser. He sought communion with angels for help revealing heavenly mysteries through mathematics, optics, and navigation.
French Nostradamus used occult astrology to cast his Prophecies (1555).

The Scientific Revolution: Heliocentric Theory

The Greek Ptolemaic geocentric model put Earth at the center of the universe.
Polish Nicholas Copernicus proposed heliocentric theory in On the Revolution of Celestial Spheres (1543).
Danish Tycho Brahe made precise astronomical observations. His German assistant Johannes Kepler gave the laws of planetary motion.
"Father of Modern Science" Galileo Galilei improved the telescope; saw Moon's craters, Jupiter's moons, Saturn, and Neptune; confirmed the heliocentric theory; and connected tides to Moon's gravity. He was persecuted by the Church in 1633 for promoting Copernican theory.

The Scientific Revolution: Renaissance Era Medical Advances

Swiss German Paracelsus, alchemist/astrologer/physician/student of the occult, rejected ancient Greeks Aristotle and Galen. He founded toxicology and pioneered the use of chemicals and minerals in medicine. He believed mercury, sulfur, and salt contained deadly poisons that were the source of all diseases.
Flemish Andreas Vesalius conducted dissections to produce a well-illustrated anatomy book On the Fabric of the Human Body (1543). Charles V's court physician.
English William Harvey, physician to the Stuart kings James I and Charles I, mapped the circulatory system.
Spanish Juan Luis Vives was a forerunner to modern psychology by studying gender roles, emotion, memory, learning, and arguing for humane treatment of mentally ill.

The Scientific Revolution: Scientific Method

English Francis Bacon (New Atlantis, 1627) developed the scientific method of experimentation and inductive reasoning.
Sure of his existence, French René Descartes wrote, "I think, therefore I am" (Meditations, 1641). From this, he developed deductive reasoning. Certainty in skeptical human reasoning became the cornerstone of modern Western philosophy.
The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge was chartered
1660.
Robert Boyle (Sceptical Chymist, 1661) founded modern chemistry. Boyle's law was developed with a scientific method.
English Margaret Cavendish wrote Observations upon Experimental Philosophy 1666) and early sci-fi Blazing World (1666).

The Scientific Revolution: Newtonian Cosmology

English Isaac Newton established laws of motion and universal gravitation and advanced optics. Principia Mathematica (1687) modeled Newtonian classical mechanics.
The mechanical, predictable Newtonian model was the basis of a scientific understanding of the physical universe until the development of quantum and relativistic physics in the 1900s.
Newton and German Gottfried Leibniz simultaneously developed calculus to mathematically describe motion, surface area, and volume. Leibniz also invented the mechanical calculator and binary code, and was later mocked by Voltaire for his optimistic philosophy.

1.2 Political Centralization

New Monarchies: Spain

1400s: Iberia was divided between the Christian kingdoms of Portugal, Castile, Aragon, and Navarre and the Muslim outpost of Grenada.
1469: Trastámara dynasty-Marital union of Isabella I of Castille and Ferdinand Il of Aragon, Naples, and Sicily (the "foremost king in Christendom" wrote Machiavelli) led to politically unified Spain.
1478: Papal bull authorized sovereigns to create the Inquisition to root out heresy and unify Spain religiously. Torture was routine in confession. Up to 8,000 burned at stake in auto-da-fé from 1480 to 1504.
1492: Isabella sponsored Columbus. The capture of Grenada completed the Christian Reconquista. Up to 800,000 Sephardic Jews were expelled from Spain. The remaining 200,000 Muslims and 70,000 Jews became conversos monitored by Inquisition.
1512: Navarre was conquered and absorbed into Spain.

New Monarchies: France

1328-1453: French Valois dynasty defeated the English Plantagenet claim to the throne in the Hundred Years' War.
Cunning, humble Louis XI the Spider (r. 1461-1483) squashed rebellious vassals, reformed taxes, encouraged trade, absorbed most of rival Charles the Bold's Duchy of Burgundy (Franche-Comté and modern Belgium passed to the Hapsburgs), and established royal roads and posts.
Francis I (r. 1515-1547) rivaled Hapsburg Charles V and English Henry VIII, patronized the French Renaissance, sponsored the exploration of Canada, and established an alliance with the Ottoman Empire that lasted to 1798. The Concordat of Bologna (1516) gave the king power to appoint clerics granting enormous power over the Catholic Church in France.

New Monarchies: England

1455: English social and financial turmoil after defeat in Hundred Years' War led the House of York (white rose) to battle the House of Lancaster (red rose) for the throne in the War of the Roses.
1485: Maligned Yorkist King Richard III was killed at the Battle of Bosworth Field. Lancastrian Henry Tudor was crowned Henry VII (r. 1485-1509), married Elizabeth of York to unify the nation, and established the Tudor dynasty, which lasted to 1603.
Henry VII used the Court of the Star Chamber to break the influence of landed nobility. Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547) used it to prosecute opponents of his policies.

New Monarchies: Holy Roman Empire

Following in Charlemagne's footsteps, Otto I reestablished the Holy Roman Empire in 962,
Decentralized collection of small kingdoms, bishoprics, republics, and Free Imperial Cities, Incorporated most of central Europe. The population was primarily German.
The Imperial Diet, an assembly of princes, burghers, knights, and clergy, convened periodically in different cities for common concerns.
Seven prince-electors (bishops of Mainz, Trier, and Cologne, and rulers of Bohemia, Palatine, Saxony, and Brandenburg) elected the emperor.
The emperor hailed from the Austrian Hapsburg family after 1438 (with single exception). He had to negotiate powers with leading princes and was only as strong as his army and alliances.

The Italian Wars

The Italian Wars are also known as the Habsburg - Valois Wars (1494-1559).
Rich, weak Italian city-states fell prey to three invasions by French Valois kings.
Unable to field armies equal to feudal monarchies, city-states sided with either Valois or Hapsburgs in shifting alliances.
Francis I took Leonardo da Vinci and Mona Lisa to France.
The sack of Rome by unpaid Catholic Spanish and Protestant Swiss/German
Hapsburg mercenaries (1527) ended the High Renaissance.
The use of artillery and early firearms represented a military revolution.
The wars ended in French defeat with the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis. Italian city-states were reduced to second-rate powers with much of Italy under Spanish control.

Diplomacy

Diplomacy emerged in Renaissance Italy. Francesco Sforza of Milan established embassies with other Italian city-states and sent a representative to France in 1455.
Diplomacy spread as France and Spain were drawn into Italian politics. Spain sent a permanent representative to England in 1487. Permanent missions were found through western Europe by the late 1500s.
• Ambassadors were nobles. Higher ranked nobles were sent to more prestigious countries. Standards were developed for residences, lavish parties, and the ambassador's role at the host's court.
Universities prepared future professional embassy staff in international law, languages, and history.

Ottoman Expansion

1453: Mehmed Il conquered Constantinople's walls with a massive cannon that was able to fire 600-pound stone balls over a mile.
Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566) dominated the eastern
Mediterranean, conquered Serbia at Belgrade (1521), formed an anti-Habsburg alliance with France (1526), slaughtered Hungary at Mohacs (1527), but was repulsed at Vienna (1529). He took much of the Mideast from Persia and captured North Africa west to Algeria.
Spanish Philip Il smashed Turks at the Mediterranean naval Battle of Lepanto
(1571), a massive blow to Turkish power.
Polish John III Sobieski fended off the last major Ottoman advance at siege of Vienna (1683).

Ottoman Culture

Results of fall of Constantinople: Byzantine Empire fell 1,000 years after Western Roman Empire. Byzantine scholars fled to Italy fueling the Renaissance.
Hagia Sophia converted to a mosque. Russia became self-proclaimed Third Rome as the new seat of Orthodox Christianity. Trade routes with Asia were severed prompting search for new sea routes via the Atlantic.
Suleiman the Magnificent (r. 1520-1566) supported the arts and oversaw the Ottoman Golden Age.
The Sultan led the Islamic theocracy and owned all land so there was no hereditary aristocracy. Ethnically and religiously diverse empires ruled through self-governing millets of religious minorities.
Christian boys taken and trained as Janissary slave-soldiers became part of the imperial administration and ruling class.

Tsardom of Russia

Grand Prince Ivan Ill the Great of Moscow (r. 1462-1505) stopped paying Mongol tribute, tripled the size of Muscovy by annexing neighboring principalities, and laid the foundations of centralized, autocratic, orthodox
Russian state.
Ivan IV the Terrible (r. 1533-1584) crowned the first tsar. He used Oprichnina to brutally crush boyar nobles and increase absolute power, notably during the sack of Novgorod (1570). He established trade with England via the Arctic route, expanded east into Siberia, and began a rivalry with Ottomans for control of Black Sea region.
The Time of Troubles (1587-1613) saw a power struggle after the end of the Rurik dynasty, a devastating invasion by Poland-Lithuania, and a famine that killed 1/3 of the population.
Troubles ended when Michael Romanov was elected tsar (1613) and established the Romanov dynasty.

Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania

Wladyslaw Il Jagiello founded the Jagiellonian dynasty (1386), which ruled in Poland, Lithuania, Hungary, and Bohemia until 1572.
1 Treaty of Lublin (1569) united the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. This large, heavily populated multiethnic state had modest religious toleration for Catholics, Protestants, Orthodox, and Jews.
Monarchical power was limited by the Sejm (legislature) of Polish szlachta (nobility) who could veto the king. By the 1600s, Sejm voting required unanimous decisions making the government weak and ineffective.

Emergence of the Secular State

Italian Nicolo Machiavelli offered realistic rather than idealistic advice to rulers in The Prince (1513), a work dedicated to Lorenzo Medici the Magnificent. He rejected traditional Christian ethics in pursuit of greater power. The Prince was the first great work of modern political philosophy.
French Jean Bodin advocated divine right during the French Wars of Religion (1576): "The sovereign Prince is only accountable to God."
Dutch Hugo Grotius (On the Law of War and Peace, 1625) developed theories of moral government and international order based on natural law during the Wars of Religion. He influenced Hobbes and Locke.

The Military Revolution

1300s: Infantry routed cavalry in key battles of the Hundred Years' War.
Armored knights on horseback gradually became obsolete.
1400s: Gunpowder introduced artillery. Methods of Italian condottieri mercenaries spread to France, Spain, and beyond. 1500s: Well-designed star forts led to lengthy sieges.
с. 1560-c. 1660: Infantry transitioned from using pikes to muskets in linear tactics of volley fire.
Dutch Maurice of Nassau professionalized soldiering with increased training and improved logistics.
Swede Gustavus Adolphus used superior strategy in the Thirty Years' War, particularly at Breitenfeld victory.
Increased investment led to large, permanent standing armies supported by heavier taxation and a larger administrative bureaucracy.

Spanish Hapsburgs

Charles V of the Holy Roman Empire/Charles 1 of Spain (r. 1519-1556), heir to Hapsburg, Trastámara, and Burgundian Valois dynasties, ruled Spain, Austria, Netherlands, and Naples; was elected Holy Roman emperor; reigned over the conquest of the Caribbean, Mexico, and Peru. He abdicated and partitioned holdings between son Philip II and brother Ferdinand I of Austria.
Philip II (r. 1556-1598), forerunner to absolutism and patron to the Catholic Reformation, enjoyed the flow of New World gold and silver, but overspending led to five state bankruptcies preceding Spanish decline. As a staunch anti-Protestant, he fought the Dutch Revolt and sent the doomed Spanish Armada to England. He soundly defeated the Turks at Lepanto (1571) and expelled Moriscos.
Charles II (r. 1665-1700), inbred and disabled, was the last Spanish Hapsburg. His death without an heir led to the War of Spanish Succession.

Spanish Golden Age

El Escorial palace/monastery was built by Philip Il as a Catholic Counter-Reformation center and held a marvelous 40,000 volume library.
Ignatius de Loyola founded the Jesuit Order.
El Greco, a Greek artist in Spain (View of Toledo), uniquely merged Italian Mannerism with Byzantine style for fantastic color and form. Fifth Seal influenced Picasso's cubist Les Demoiselles d'Avignon.
Diego Velasquez (Las Meninas) was a leading Baroque painter at the court of Philip IV.
Miguel de Cervantes satirized chivalry in the first modern novel, Don Quixote (1605-1615)•
Lope de Vega wrote around 500 plays for Baroque theater and many other works.

Dutch Golden Age

Shipbuilding, fishing, trade, finance, and agriculture led to Europe's highest standard of living.
Dutch East India Company dominated the spice trade, and the Bank of Amsterdam was an early central bank.
The Dutch were primarily Calvinists but tolerated Jews and Catholics.
The Universities of Leiden and Groningen, Hans Lippershey (telescope), Antonie von Leeuwenhoek (microscope), and Christian Huygens (Saturn's rings, pendulum clock) advanced science.
The paintings of Rembrandt (Night Watch), Frans Hals (Laughing Cavalier), and Jan Vermeer (Girl with Pearl Earring, Geographer, View of Delft) demonstrated the Protestant work ethic and the understated luxury of the successful Dutch middle class.

Elizabethan England

Tudor monarch Elizabeth | (r. 1558-1603) was advised by spymaster Francis Walsingham and Treasurer William Cecil.
The Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity established Anglican tenets reaching English Religious Settlement.
Elizabeth I imprisoned and executed her rival, the Catholic Mary, Queen of Scots.
After his circumnavigation (1577-1580) laden with Spanish treasure, pirate Francis Drake was knighted.
Elizabeth supported the Dutch Revolt and defended England against the Spanish Armada (1588).
Walter Raleigh sponsored the North Carolina lost colony of Roanoke.
William Shakespeare (Hamlet) and Christopher Marlowe (Doctor Faustus) wrote pensive plays.

English Civil War: Causes

Stuart King James | (r. 1603-1625) joined England, Scotland, and Ireland in personal union, survived the Gunpowder Plot (1605), and authorized the King James Bible (1611). Belief in divine right and absolutism irked Parliament.
Charles I (r. 1625-1649) believed in divine right, employed excessive royal prerogative, married French Catholic Bourbon, and tried to force Scottish Presbyterians to adopt Anglicanism.
Parliament passed Petition of Right (1628) limiting the king's power to tax. Charles I dismissed and ruled without Parliament (1629-1640) while generating revenue from unpopular Ship Money tax (1634).

English Civil War: Conflict

Charles I called the Short Parliament session (1640) to raise funds to suppress Scottish Presbyterian rebellion. MP John Pym led a refusal of funds without reform. Parliament was dismissed by Charles I after three weeks.
Long Parliament session (1640-1660) reconvened to grant war funds when the Irish rebelled, too. Parliament instead accused royal allies William Laud and Thomas Wentworth of treason. Charles I failed in an attempt to arrest Parliamentary leaders, fled London, and raised an army.
1642-1646: Royalist Cavaliers fought Roundheads of Parliament's New Model Army led by Puritan Oliver Cromwell. Charles I was imprisoned by Scottish Presbyterians and turned over to Parliament.

English Civil War: Consequences

Pride's Purge (1648) removed Puritan New Model Army opponents in Long Parliament leaving a small Rump Parliament.
Charles I was tried and beheaded for treason (1649). The Commonwealth of England was established. Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell crushed Scottish and Irish rebellions, fought a trade war with the Dutch, conquered Jamaica, and enforced Puritan beliefs.
Thomas Hobbes's Leviathan (1651) reflected results of the English Civil War by opposing divine right but defending absolutism stating the state receives absolute sovereignty from the social contract of individuals surrendering rights in exchange for security.
Charles II (r. 1660-1685) ended Puritan rule upon his Restoration.

Development of French Absolutism

Louis XIII (r. 1610-1643): Advised by Cardinal Richelieu. Ordered all fortified castles razed to deny strongholds to rebellious French nobles, centralized state administration through appointment of intendants, patronized the arts, and founded Académie Française.
Louis XIV, the Sun King (r. 1643-1715): Advised by Cardinal Mazarin. Consolidated royal power after the Fronde (1648-1653) by forcing nobles to attend the luxurious Palace of Versailles.

Swedish Golden Age: Rise

1397-1523: Kalmar Union joined Denmark, Sweden, and Norway under a common monarch. Christian Il of Denmark massacred separatist Swedish nobles in the Stockholm Bloodbath (1520).
Elected-king Gustav | (r. 1523-1560) led Sweden to independence, broke Hanseatic trade power, and laid the foundations of the modern state.
"Lion of the North" Gustavus Adolphus (r. 1611-1632) dominated the Baltic and northern Germany making Sweden a Great Power. He was killed leading Protestants in the Thirty Years' War.

Swedish Golden Age: Decline

1630s-1660s: Swedish colonies in Delaware and West Africa lost to the Dutch and Danes.
Christina I (r. 1632-1654) defied gender roles; sponsored scientists, artists, and musicians to turn Stockholm into "Athens of the North"; and was tutored by René Descartes. She refused marriage and abdicated the throne, whereupon she converted to Catholicism, moved to Italy, and was buried at the Vatican.
Charles XII (r. 1697-1718) lost the Great Northern War (1700-1721) to Russia ending Sweden's Great Power status.

Noble Revolts: The Fronde

1648-1653: French parlements (high appellate courts), nobility, and bourgeoisie revolted against the high taxes during the Thirty Years' War and monarchical infringement of local traditions and feudal rights and privileges.
Frondeurs rebelled, seeking to limit the king's power. The Fronde was the final revolt of French nobles against the monarchy.
Victory of the royal army led to increased absolutism under Louis XIV.

Noble Revolts: Catalan Revolt

Aragon and Castile maintained separate assemblies, languages, and feudal traditions after Spain unified.
Aragonese province of Catalonia was exempt from supporting Spanish imperial wars. Catalans resisted the Union of Arms (1625), which would have imposed war burden sharing.
1639: Catalonia was ravaged in the Spanish war against France during the final phase of the Thirty Years' War. Catalan priests led an anti-Castilian peasant revolt and sought French aid against Philip IV.
1641: Pau Claris declared Catalan Republic under French protection.
1652: Spanish retook Catalan capital of Barcelona, but Philip IV offered rebels amnesty and preserved separate Catalan law.

The Peace of Westphalia

Treaties between the Holy Roman Empire, Spain, France, Sweden, and the Dutch Republic ended the Thirty Years' War and Dutch Revolt.
The treaties established a modern diplomatic structure based on principles of sovereign states, international law, balance of power, and noninterference in domestic affairs.
They extended the Peace of Augsburg (1555) principle of cuius regio, eius religio to choice of Catholicism, Lutheranism, or Calvinism.
They recognized the independence of the Netherlands and Switzerland.
The Holy Roman Empire and Habsburg Spain were greatly weakened. Bourbon France and Sweden reached Great Power status.
They set a precedent for diplomatic peace congresses (Vienna, 1815; Paris, 1919).

1.3 Religious Pluralism

Church Abuses

Indulgences: Church grants offered absolution of sins and shortening of afterlife in Purgatory. They were granted by Pope Urban Il to Crusaders (1095) and issued in the late medieval era for performing good works. Pope Leo X (r. 1513-1521) authorized Johann Tetzel to sell printed indulgences to finance Renaissance beautification of St. Peter's Basilica.
Nepotism: Popes and bishops appointed their nephews to high office.
Simony: Church offices were sold.
Pluralism: Appointment to multiple church offices.
Absenteeism: Clergy lived outside of parish or diocese.
Pope Alexander VI (r. 1493-1503), born Rodrigo Borgia, was reputed to have fathered illegitimate children and accused of buying papacy with bribes and hosting orgies at the Vatican. Son Cesare Borgia was accused of multiple murders.

Christian Humanism

Christian humanism merged Christian ethics with humanist principles of individual worth, dignity, and materialism.
Northern academics looked to early Christian rather than classical sources of knowledge. Printing led to increased biblical study.
Desiderius Erasmus of Rotterdam prepared new Greek and Latin translations of the New Testament and critiqued superstitious and corrupt Catholic practices in Praise of Folly (1511). He is regarded as the Father of the Reformation, but he remained loyal to the Church.
Thomas More of England critiqued European society through an imagined, socialistic society in Utopia (1516). He advised Henry VIII but was beheaded for opposing the king's English Reformation.
Luther's and Calvin's theologies were rooted in Christian humanism, but unlike Erasmus and More, Luther and Calvin broke with the Church.

Protestant Reformation: Martin Luther

Martin Luther nailed to the Wittenberg church door 95 Theses (1517) opposing indulgences sold in Germany by Johann Tetzel.
He believed in salvation by faith alone, not good works, and recognized baptism and communion as the only sacraments. He also argued for clerical marriage and family.
Luther was excommunicated because he refused to recant at Diet of Worms
(1521) and was condemned by Charles V.
He believed the Bible, not clergy, was the highest authority and translated the Bible into German (1522) while sheltered by the Elector of Saxony.
Luther's anti-Semitic treatise On the Jews and Their Lies (1543) called for the burning of Jewish synagogues, schools, homes, and writings; the murder of active rabbis; and the expulsion of all Jews from Germany.

Protestant Reformation: Lutheranism

Protestant princes supported Luther partly because of their anti-Habsburg sentiment. Italian Wars and Ottoman advances diverted Charles V from suppressing the spread of Lutheranism.
Albert, Duke of Prussia of the Hohenzollern dynasty, was the last Grand Master of Teutonic Knights. He dissolved the order and was the first prince to adopt Lutheranism (1525).
Adherence spread throughout northern Germany and Scandinavia.
Philip Melanchthon defended Luther and authored the Augsburg Confession (1530) of Lutheran theology.
Peace of Augsburg (1555) divided the Holy Roman Empire between Lutheran and Catholic states. Calvinists and Anabaptists were unrecognized.

Protestant Reformation: Calvinism

1522-1531: Influenced by humanism and Erasmus, Swiss Ulrich Zwingli preached reform in Zurich. He disagreed with Luther on the nature of communion and opposed Anabaptists. He was killed battling Catholics.
French John Calvin fled to Switzerland after the Affair of the Placards (1534).
He wrote Institutes of the Christian Religion (1536) and led Geneva (1541-1564), which enforced morality through theocratic Consistory.
Calvin preached scripture study, God's earthly guidance through providence, and predestination (salvation of the Elect, damnation for most due to human depravity as legacy of original sin).
He emphasized simplicity, a strong work ethic, self-improvement, and success as signs of being Elect.
Calvinism spread to France (Huguenot), the Netherlands (Reformed), Scotland (Presbyterian via John Knox), and England (Puritan).

Protestant Reformation: Anglicanism

Henry VIII (r. 1509-1547) lacked a male heir, was denied a papal marriage annulment from Catherine of Aragon, separated the Anglican Church from Rome, and confiscated Catholic wealth in England.
Canterbury Archbishop Thomas Cranmer and adviser Thomas Cromwell supported the Act of Supremacy (1534), but Thomas More was executed for his opposition.
Cranmer wrote the Book of Common Prayer.
Protestant reform intensified under Edward VI (r. 1547-1553, son of Henry VIIII and third wife Jane Seymour) during regencies of uncle Edward Seymour and Duke John Dudley.

Protestant Reformation: English Religious Settlement

"Bloody" Mary I (r. 1553-1558, daughter of Henry VIII and first wife Catherine of Aragon) restored Catholicism, married Philip Il of Spain, burned 283 Protestants at the stake, and exiled 800 others.
Elizabeth | (r. 1558-1603, daughter of Henry VIII and second wife Anne Boleyn) enforced moderate Protestantism with Acts of Supremacy (1558) and Uniformity (1559) in English Religious Settlement.
Calvinist Puritans wished to purify the Anglican Church of all Catholic influence. 21.000 migrated to New England in the 1620s-1640s. Middle class Puritans dominated the House of Commons in the 1630s precipitating the English Civil War.

Protestant Reformation: Anabaptists

The Anabaptists were several groups of Radical Reformers.
They practiced baptism of adult believers, separation of church and state, and pacifism. Many emphasized apocalyptic millennialism-preparation for end times and Christ's second coming.
1524-1525: Thomas Müntzer, the leader of the German Peasants' Revolt, was an early opponent of infant baptism.
1533: Austrian Jakob Hutter founded communal-living Hutterites.
1534-1535: German John of Leiden briefly led theocracy in Münster.
1536: Dutch Menno Simons founded Mennonites. Jacob Amman led the Amish splinter group (1693).
Anabaptists persecuted by Catholics and more moderate Protestants alike. Many emigrated to North America.

Catholic (Counter-) Reformation: Papal Reform

Pope Paul III (r. 1534-1549) convened the Council of Trent (1545-1563) to address corruption, indulgences, clerical misconduct, and financial abuse. The Council rejected compromise with Protestants, reaffirmed papal authority and basic doctrines, and sought to improve education and discipline of priests and the administration of the Church.
Roman Inquisition (est. 1542) rooted out Protestantism, Judaism, sorcery and witchcraft, immorality, and the distribution of censored works. It tried Galileo for heresy (1633).
Pope Paul IV (r. 1555-1559) issued Index of Forbidden Books and restricted Jews to the ghettos.
1600 - 1750: Baroque art reenergized and propagated the Catholic faith.

Catholic (Counter-) Reformation: Religious Orders

Ignatius Loyola founded the Disciplined Society of Jesus (1540). Jesuits fought the spread of Protestantism and propagated Catholicism. Jesuit schools educated Catholic elite and Jesuit priests advised monarchs. Francis Xavier and others led evangelical missions to India, Japan, China, Brazil, Canada, and elsewhere.
Teresa of Avila reformed the Carmelite order of nuns and promoted mental prayer to achieve trance-like mystical union with God.
Angela Merici founded the Ursuline order of nuns to provide religious education to girls and serve the sick and needy.

Religious Challenges to Monarchical Control

Francis I of France withdrew protection of Huguenots after the Affair of the Placards (1534). Many nobles, including Admiral Gaspard de Coligny and Henry of Navarre, joined the Huguenots in anti-Valois monarchical resistance.
The Huguenot population grew quickly under Henry Il of France (r. 1547-1559). About 2 million Protestants held 60 fortified cities.
James I of England rejected Puritan reforms at Hampton Court Conference (1604) and persecuted them after. The staunch Anglican policies of Charles I and William Laud forced Puritan emigration and resistance among wealthy Puritans in the House of Commons, climaxing in Puritan victory during English Civil War and rule from 1640-1660.

Wars of Religion: German Peasants’ Revolt

Thomas Müntzer radicalized Martin Luther's attack on religious authorities into German Peasants' political-economic revolt (1524-1525) against secular princes.
Up to 300,000 killed in the largest peasant uprising before the French Revolution, which Luther condemned in Against the Murderous, Thieving Hordes of Peasants.

Wars of Religion: Schmalkaldic War

Lutheran princes formed a defense alliance in the Schmalkaldic League (1531) & confiscated German Church property
After concluding the wars against the French and Ottomans, Charles V launched the Schmalkaldic War (1546-1547) to suppress Protestantism. Protestants lost but Lutheranism was too entrenched to destroy.
Charles V and the Schmalkaldic League signed the Peace of Augsburg (1555). The cuius regio, eius religion principle allowed German princes to choose Catholicism or Lutheranism.

Wars of Religion: Dutch War of Independence

The Spanish Duke of Alba ran the Council of Blood Catholic Inquisition against Dutch Calvinists.
1568: William the Silent of Orange led the Dutch Revolt starting the Fight Years' War of Independence from Hapsburg Spain
1579: The Union of Utrecht formed the Calvinist northern United Provinces of the Netherlands. The Southern Netherlands remained Catholic under Hapsburg Spain.
1588: Protestant Elizabeth I of England's support of the Dauch contributed to the failed Spanish Armada.
1609: The Dutch won de facto independence, but hostilities with Spain continued until the Peace of Westphalia (1648).

Wars of Religion: French Civil Wars

Queen Catherine de Medici was regent for weak sons Francis I (r. 1559-1560), Charles IX (r. 1560-1574), & Henry III (r. 1574-1589).
1562: Huguenots were massacred at Vassy starting religious civil wars.
1572: Elites gathered in Paris for the wedding of the king's Catholic sister to Huguenot leader Henry of Navarre. The wedding was supposed to bring peace; instead, prominent Huguenots were slaughtered in the St. Bartholomew's Day Massacre. The killings spread throughout France.
1587-1589: War of Three Henrys: 2-4 million people died before Catholic Valois King Henry III and Spanish Hapsburg-supported Catholic Henry of Guise were defeated.
1589: Victorious Henry of Navarre was crowned Henry IV (r. 1589-1610), founded the Bourbon dynasty, converted to Catholicism, and issued the Edict of Nantes (1598) tolerating Huguenots. "Paris is well worth a mass."

Wars of Religion: 30 Years’ War: Bohemian Phase

Peace of Augsburg (1555) divided the Holy Roman Empire between Lutheran and Catholic states, but religious hostilities remained. The spread of Calvinism throughout the empire in the late 1500s intensified friction.
The formation of the defensive Protestant Union (1608) prompted the organization of the Catholic League (1609).
1618: Bohemian Protestants ejected Catholic Hapsburg imperial ministers out a third-story window in Defenestration of Prague.
1619: Bohemian Protestant nobles deposed Holy Roman Emperor Frederick 11, a zealous Catholic, from his role as king of Bohemia.
1620: Catholic League, Hapsburg imperial, and Spanish forces led by Count Tilly crushed Bohemian Protestants at the Battle of White Mountain.

Wars of Religion: 30 Years’ War: Danish and Swedish Phases

1625-1629: Lutheran Christian IV of Denmark intervened on Protestant side. Catholic Hapsburg imperial forces under Albrecht von Wallenstein repulsed Christian IV and looted northern Germany.
1630-1635: Lutheran military genius Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden intervened, winning major Protestant victories over Count Tilly at Breitenfeld (1631) and Wallenstein at Lützen (1632).
Gustavus Adolphus's death at Lützen left Protestants directionless and allowed Catholic imperial forces to recover.

Wars of Religion: 30 Years’ War: French Phase

1631-1635: French Catholic Cardinal Richelieu financially supported Protestant Sweden to diminish Hapsburg power.
1635-1648: Bourbon France intervened directly against Hapsburg Spain and the Holy Roman Empire. The decisive French victory at Rocroi (1643) weakened Spain and fueled Catalan Revolt. Sweden recaptured northern Germany and took Prague leaving only Austria under Hapsburg control within the empire.
Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended most fighting, but France and Spain clashed until the Treaty of Pyrenees (1659).

Wars of Religion: 30 Years’ War: Consequences

25%-40% of the German population died due to plunder, starvation, and pestilence. Thousands of towns, villages, and castles were destroyed.
The Peace of Augsburg (1555) principle of cuius regio, eius religio choice of Catholicism or Lutheranism was extended to include the option of Calvinism.
Imperial authority diminished within the Holy Roman Empire.
Massive devastation led Brandenburg-Prussia to become a powerful military state in the late 1600s.
Hapsburg Spain was weakened.
Bourbon France became the dominant power in western Europe.
Sweden became the dominant power in Northern Europe.
The Netherlands and Switzerland gained independence.

Wars of Religion: Wars of the 3 Kingdoms

1639-1651: Interconnected wars between England, Ireland, and Scotland, including the English Civil War, concerned the established religion (Anglican, Presbyterian, Puritan, or Catholic), the proper role of monarchical power, and the national autonomy of Scotland and Ireland from England.
1649-1660: The New Model Army led by Oliver Cromwell established military rule. The Church of England, House of Lords, and Irish and Scottish Parliaments were disbanded. Catholic Irish lands were confiscated.
1660: Radicals were punished and Scottish and Irish Parliaments were reinstated after the restoration of Charles Il to the throne, but core religious and political issues remained unresolved until the Glorious Revolution of 1688.

Religious Tolerance

Commonwealth of Poland-Lithuania: Warsaw Confederation Act (1573) was the first European document granting religious tolerance in multiethnic (Poles, Lithuanians, Belarusians, Ukrainians, Germans, Jews), multi-faith (~40% Catholic, ~40% Orthodox, ~20% Protestant, Jewish, Muslim) state. Made the Commonwealth a safe refuge during the Thirty Years' War.
France: Edict of Nantes (1598) restored peace after French Civil Wars of Religion. Henry IV offered amnesty and civil rights to Huguenots and allowed them forts and religious freedom in some parts of France. The edict was later revoked by Louis XIV (1685).
Netherlands: Majority of Calvinists tolerated minorities for the sake of commerce. Jews were allowed to worship publicly, Lutherans worshiped with some restrictions, and Catholics worshiped in private.

Paganism

Scandinavia was nominally Christianized by the 1100s, but some pagan practices continued. The Sami people of the far north were not Christianized until the 1700s.
1229-1413: Teutonic Knights of Prussia spread Christianity through the Northern Crusades against the Baltic Pagans. Paganism was practiced by Lithuanian peasants into the 1600s.
Pagan beliefs later associated with ethnic national origins during the 1800s, particularly in Scandinavian and Germanic lands as reflected in some 19th century Romantic art.

Judaism

1290-1500s: Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazic Jews settled in Poland-Lithuania after expulsions from western Europe. Jewish merchants financed the Polish monarchy and nobility. Jews were able to acquire land.
1492: Up to 800,000 Sephardic Jews fled to France, Italy, Netherlands, and the Ottoman Empire upon expulsion from Spain. Conversos spread through Spanish and Portuguese empires but faced the Inquisition.

Orthodoxy

1453: Russian Orthodox Church claimed to be Third Rome after the fall of Constantinople.
The Greek Orthodox Church had limited religious freedom as semiautonomous Rum Millet of Ottoman Empire.

Islam

The Catholic, Orthodox, and Islamic faiths intersected in the Balkans.
Ottoman Turks did not force Christians to convert to Islam but did impose a heavier tax burden on non-Muslims.
Many Roman Catholics and Orthodox Christians in Bosnia, Kosovo, and Albania chose conversion to Islam for religious or socioeconomic reasons.

1.4 Economic Expansion

Late Medieval Eurasian Trade

From the 1100s: Crusades increased Christian contact with the Muslim world. Merchants from Venice, Genoa, and other Mediterranean city-states traded for Asian spices, incense, and opium.
1200s-1300s: Eurasian trade increased across the Silk Road during Pax Mongolica (Mongol Peace). Giovanna da Pian del Carpine visited the court of the Great Khan (1246). Marco Polo described his Travels (1291).
Mid-1300s: Travels of John Mandeville told tales of distant lands.
1406: Ptolemy's Geography was translated to Latin.
1453: The bubonic plague, Mongol collapse, and Ottoman conquest of Constantinople disrupted trade between Europe and Asia.

Commercial and Religious Motives for Exploration

The Fall of Constantinople (1453) fueled the desire for new trade routes to acquire Asian spices-cinnamon, ginger, pepper, cloves, and turmeric.
The European trade deficit with Asia created a gold and silver shortage. Many European gold and silver mines were exhausted. New sources such as the rich silver mine of Potosí in Spanish Bolivia were sought.
Crusades and Reconquista of Spain and Portugal fueled the desire to spread Christianity to Islamic and other lands. Jesuits spread Catholicism to India, Japan, China, East Indies, Congo, Brazil, Paraguay, and Canada during the Catholic Counter-Reformation.

Sailing Technology

European mariners began using the compass in the 1200s.
Portolan navigational charts were drawn based on compass direction and estimated sea distance.
Quadrants and astrolabes imported from the Muslim world were used to measure the position of the Sun, Moon, and stars for celestial navigation.
Cog, carrack, and caravel type ships allowed rough ocean travel.
Stern-mounted rudders and lateen-rig sails improved ship maneuverability.
Ship-mounted cannons provided firepower.

First Global Age

The Age of Exploration increased contact between distant civilizations.
The Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch, English, and French built global empires. Christianity replaced pagan beliefs in many areas.
Columbian Exchange spread between the Eastern and Western Hemispheres.
The European economic core shifted from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic.
The Spanish influx of silver and gold sparked a price revolution. Inflation elevated prices about 600% over a 150-year period.
Increased trade and amount of currency in circulation fueled growth of the bourgeoisie who influenced politics and culture. Sugar, spices, silks, porcelain, and other luxuries were more widely consumed.
African slave trade expanded into the transatlantic slave trade.

Portuguese Exploration and Empire

1415: The Portuguese captured Ceuta on the North African coast.
Mid-1400s: Prince Henry encouraged mapping of the African coast seeking trade and lost Christian kingdom of Prester John.
Africa: Bartolome Dias rounded Cape of Good Hope (1488). Vasco da Gama reached Calicut, India (1498). Sugar plantations were established on West African islands.
Americas: Treaty of Tordesillas (1494) drew a line of demarcation giving Spain lands west and Portugal lands east. En route to India, Pedro Cabral claimed Brazil (1500).
Asia: Afonso de Albuquerque captured key Indian Ocean ports from Ottomans, Arabs, Persians, & Indians. Portugal dominated regional trade in the 1500s but were eclipsed by the Dutch & English competition in the 1600s

Spanish Empire

1492: Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain funded Christopher Columbus who miscalculated distance to Japan, who arrived in the Caribbean.
1494: The pope granted Spain western lands in the Treaty of Tordesillas.
1516: Rio de la Plata was settled, and Buenos Aires was founded (1536).
1519-1522: Hernan Cortes conquered Montezuma's Aztec Empire. Mexico City was the capital of the Viceroyalty of New Spain.
1519-1522: Ferdinand Magellan was killed in the Philippines, which he claimed for Spain. Juan Sebastián Elcano completed the first circumnavigation.
1531-1535: Francisco Pizzaro captured Incan Emperor Athualpa at Cajamarca. Lima was founded as the capital of the Viceroyalty of Peru.

Spanish Colonial Society

The Spanish king ruled through viceroys and audencias (royal courts). The Crown received 1/5 of mining profits.
Encomiendas were grants of land and indios to conquistadors.
Dominican, Franciscan, and Jesuit missions were founded in Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California.
Sistema de castas was a hierarchical social-racial system.
Peninsulares were European-born Spaniards with elite government, army, or Church positions. American-born Spaniards were criollos.
Aztec and Incan elite indios intermarried with Spanish nobles but the majority of indios were poor.
African slave negros worked sugar plantations and silver mines.
Mestizos and mulatos were mixed race.
Bartolome de Las Casas opposed mistreatment of natives.

Spanish Exploration

1499: Amerigo Vespucci spotted the mouth of the Amazon River. German cartographer Martin Waldseemüller named American continents after him.
1513: Juan Ponce de Léon searched Florida for the Fountain of Youth, and Vasco Núñez de Balboa sighted the Pacific Ocean from Panama.
1539-1542: Hernando de Soto trekked across American Southeast. Francisco Vázquez de Coronado searched the American Southwest for Seven Golden Cities of Cíbola. Francisco de Orellana traveled the length of the Amazon River.

French Exploration and Empire

1524: Giovanni da Verrazzano mapped the North American coast.
Canada: Jacques Cartier explored the St. Lawrence River (1534-1542). Samuel de Champlain founded Quebec City (1608). Sieur de Maisonneuve founded Montréal (1642). New France had a small population, relied on friendly relations with natives for fur trade, and established Catholic missions.
Louisiana: Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette explored the Mississippi River (1673). Robert de La Salle built forts throughout the Great Lakes and Mississippi valley. Sieur de Bienville founded New Orleans (1718).
Caribbean: Plantations worked by slaves produced sugar in St. Domingue (Haiti), Guadeloupe, Martinique, and St. Lucia.

English Sea Dogs

Elizabeth I gave letters of marque to privateers preying on the Spanish.
John Hawkins profited from slave trade to Spanish colonies, organized the Elizabethan navy, and planned raids on the Spanish Main.
Francis Drake took 20 tons of Spanish silver and gold at Panama (1572-1573). After taking 26 tons of silver from a Spanish treasure ship off the South American Pacific coast, he stopped near San Francisco Bay during his second global circumnavigation (1577-1580).
Walter Raleigh was granted a royal patent to explore Virginia; sponsored the Roanoke, North Carolina, lost colony (1584); and searched South America for El Dorado (1595).
Drake delayed the launch of the Spanish Armada by "singeing Philip II's beard" in a raid on Cadiz, Spain (1587). Hawkins helped lead defense against the Spanish Armada at Gravelines (1588).

13 British North American Colonies

Virginia: James I chartered joint-stock Virginia Company. John Smith led Jamestown (1607). John Rolfe brought tobacco.
New England: Calvinist Puritans came as pilgrims to Plymouth, Massachusetts(1620). They were led by William Bradford, signed the Mayflower Compact, and were morally guided by John Winthrop's City Upon a Hill sermon. They spread to Connecticut, Rhode Island, New Hampshire, and Maine and clashed with natives during King Philip's War (1675-1678).
Middle Colonies: The English took New York, New Jersey, Delaware, and Vermont from the Dutch (1664). Quaker William Penn founded Pennsylvania(1681) as a holy experiment.
Southern Colonies: George Calvert founded Maryland (1632) as a haven for English Catholics. The Carolinas were granted to eight Lords Proprietors (1663), and Georgia was organized by James Oglethorpe (1733).

English Colonial Empire

Elizabeth I chartered the East India Company (1600), which established trading posts in Java, Sumatra, and India (Bombay, Calcutta) and competed with the Portuguese, Dutch, and French for trade.
Bermuda was settled by the Virginia Company (1609).
Canada: Newfoundland (1610), Nova Scotia (1629-1632), and Hudson's Bay Company traded furs (1670).
Caribbean: Jamaica, Bahamas, Barbados, Nevis, St. Kitts, and Antigua accommodated rich sugar plantations worked by slaves. 44,000 English colonists in the Caribbean; 23,000 in New England; 12,000 in Virginia by 1650.
Failed Scottish colony of Caledonia in Panama (1695) lost 25%-50% of Scotland's capital and led to the Treaty of Union (1707) with England creating the United Kingdom of Great Britain.

Dutch Exploration

1594-1597: William Barentsz searched the Arctic for the Northeast Passage.
1607-1611: English Henry Hudson explored the Hudson River valley for the Netherlands and the Arctic for England.
1628: Privateer Pieter Pieterszoon Heyn bloodlessly captured enough Spanish gold to fund the Dutch army for eight months.
1642-1644: Abel Janszoon Tasman sighted Tasmania and New Zealand.

Dutch Empire

The Dutch East India Company (1602) was the first stock-issuing multinational corporation. It monopolized the spice trade and had authority to establish colonies, negotiate treaties, mint coins, wage war, and imprison and execute criminals. From 1602 to 1796, it shipped five times as much tonnage as British EIC.
Asia: Dutch control stretched to the Dutch East Indies (capital Batavia), India (Ceylon, Bengal), Japan, China, Indochina, Formosa, Iran, and Yemen.
Africa: The Dutch established Cape Colony (1652) and West African trade posts.
Americas: The Dutch held the Caribbean islands of Aruba, Curaçao, and St. Maarten; New Netherland was lost to England (1664) in exchange for Suriname.

Atlantic Economy

Triangular trade occurred between Europe, Africa, and the Americas.
Europeans traded metal, cloth, guns, and rum to Africa.
African slaves were carried to American colonies in the Middle Passage.
Plantations produced sugar, rum, molasses, tobacco, and hemp exported from the Americas to Europe.
Mercantilism enforced monopolistic trade of mother countries with overseas colonies.

Columbian Exchange

Columbian Exchange moved animals, plants, culture, people, technology, and ideas between the Old World (Europe, Asia, Africa) and the New World (Americas).
Europeans took wheat, cattle, horses, pigs, sheep, goats, chickens, dogs, cats, bees, coffee, oranges, bananas, smallpox, measles, influenza, and the common cold to the Americas.
Europeans brought tomatoes, potatoes, sweet potatoes, chili peppers, squash, corn, cassava, peanuts, tobacco, cocoa, turkeys, blueberries, vanilla, zucchini, and syphilis from the Americas.
Old World diseases killed up to 90% of American natives.
New World crops fed massive European and Asian population growth.

Transatlantic Slave Trade

Enslaved Native Americans died from abuse and disease creating a labor shortage. Enslaved Africans were brought to Hispaniola by 1501.
1500s-1800s: 11-12 million slaves were transported across the Atlantic in loads of 350-600 per ship. Around 2 million died during Middle Passage.
80% of the slaves were taken to the West Indies and Brazil, 4% were taken to the British Thirteen Colonies, and the remainder were sent throughout the Spanish colonies.
Slaves worked in sugar, cotton, rice, tobacco, coffee, and cocoa plantations; gold and silver mines; and other labor.

Early Banking

Merchant banks began with medieval Italian grain merchants. Jews were not subject to the Church sin of usury and so traded on grain futures and debt providing boch credit and insurance underwriting.
Court Jews were treasurers for European nobility managing their finances and farming taxes, negotiating loans, and minting coin.
Bills of exchange authorized payment on specified future dates providing credit and allowing long-distance payment.
1200s: Italian Christians invented methods to circumvent usury reducing Jewish influence. The Medici family bank was founded in 1397.
1494: Italian Luca Pacioli, a mathematician and collaborator with Leonardo da Vinci, published text on double-entry bookkeeping to reduce accounting errors.

German and English Banking

The German Fugger family were international bankers and venture capitalists who replaced Medici influence. The Fuggers were involved in mining, spices, wool, and silk trade throughout Europe. Jakob Fugger loaned 543,000 florins to Charles V for election as Holy Roman emperor.
1528-1556: Charles V awarded the German Welser banking family the right to colonize and rule Venezuela.
The Reformation freed Protestant Christians from Church usury prohibitions. More Protestants began banking in Britain, Germany, and the Netherlands.
1571: The London Royal Exchange opened for trade of goods. Stock exchange was prohibited until the 1600s because of brokers' rude manners.

Dutch Finance

The Netherlands had the first modern economy with free markets, high agricultural productivity, diversified labor force, guaranteed property rights, enforcement of contract, freedom of movement, sustained economic growth, and consumer market.
1602: The Dutch East India Company received high-risk capital investments from displaced merchants like expelled Spanish Jews. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange was established to trade stocks and bonds.
1609: The Bank of Amsterdam was backed by the city government. It exchanged foreign currency and was the forerunner to the modern central bank.
1637: Tulipmania created the first speculative investment bubble. Tulip bulbs sold for outrageous sums before the price crashed.
1670: Dutch per capita income was 30%-40% higher than English. The Dutch were responsible for 50% of European shipping.

Hanseatic League

1400s-1700s: The Hanseatic League was an alliance of guilds and free merchant cities dominating the Baltic Sea, North Sea, and northern German trade. It was primarily German but included towns throughout the region. Its economic hub was the port of Lübeck.
It provided common defense and mutual aid.
It owed allegiance directly to the Holy Roman emperor, not lower nobles.
It used wealth to influence Northern European politics.

New Economic Elites: Bourgeoisie

The bourgeoisie emerged in the 1000s with the revival of trade and growth of cities.
Middle class merchants and artisans living behind city walls (French bourgeoisie, German Burghers) organized in guilds and corporations to resist rent-seeking feudal landlords.
1400s-1600s: They undermined the feudal order and contributed to the growth of nation-states by allying their economic power with new monarchies against nobility. They provided loans for expensive new military equipment.
German Jakob Fugger expanded the family textile trade, mined silver and copper, and invested in overseas trade with India. He wielded enormous political influence by bankrolling the Hapsburgs and papacy.
This merchant class was satirized by Molière as pretentious social-climbers in Bourgeois Gentleman (1670).

New Economic Elites: French Nobles of the Robe

1604: To fund the state and rebuild from religious wars, Henry IV sold aristocratic titles and prestigious jobs to the bourgeoisie. The term "Nobles of the Robe" came from judicial robes worn by members of the parlements (courts of appeal). Titles were hereditary.
Nobles of the Sword were traditional French knights with feudal fiefs. Many resented the Nobles of the Robe because their rank was not derived from military service or land ownership.
When Jean-Baptiste Colbert sold additional bureaucratic positions, Nobles of the Robe protested because it devalued their status.

New Economic Elites: English Gentry

Landed gentry were upper-class landowners without formal peerage (aristocratic titles) including baronets, knights, esquires, and gentlemen.
Gentry were wealthy enough to live in stately manors entirely off rental income from tenant farmers.
Many successful merchants bought country estates with the goal of becoming landed gentry, but once established they were expected to sever business ties to cleanse the "taint of trade."

New Economic Elites: Spanish Caballeros and Hidalgos

A strong code of chivalry guided Spanish caballeros (knights) due to centuries-long Reconquista. After the fall of Granada (1492), Spanish monarchs worked to reduce the independence and influence of Crusader orders of knights.
Hidalgos were poor, tax-exempt knightly nobles. Kings often awarded titles for military service.
1500s: Caballeros and hidalgos became conquistadors in the New World, taking land, spreading Christianity, and gaining wealth and fame.
Miguel de Cervantes satirized chivalry in the first modern novel, Don Quixote (1605-1615).
By the late 1600s, over 500,000 were tax-exempt straining state finances that increasingly relied more on professional armies and mercenaries than hidalgo fighting service.

1.5 Social and Economic Relations

Traditional Subsistence Agriculture

Mediterranean traditional two-crop rotation agriculture split arable land between planted and fallow fields. Wheat and barley took about half of the acreage. Citrus, olives, figs, and grapes grew well. Variation in climate and soil produced many distinct wines. Cattle were raised in the Italian Lombardy plain and Spanish Ebro basin.
Three-crop field rotation splits land between spring, autumn, and fallow fields increasing productivity and reducing crop failure and famine. This method required summer rain, limiting its practice mainly to northern Europe.
1400s: The European population was recovering from Black Death. Infant mortality was high. Adult life expectancy was around 40 years. Couples married late until they were able to support children. Early death and remarriage created mixed families; stepparents were common.

Commercial Agriculture

1500s-1600s: Spanish New World silver and gold sparked a price revolution. Inflation raised prices about 600% over a 150-year period.
There were about 800 markets throughout Britain in 1500. Each served roughly a 10-mile radius. Farming moved from subsistence to commercial.
English landowners feared the loss of wealth from inflation and agricultural competition. They saw enclosure and consolidation of small landholdings into single, larger farms as more efficient. Enclosed lands often turned into sheep pasture for the growing wool industry.
The enclosure of common lands destroyed many villages. The state feared lower tax revenues, fewer military conscripts, and underclass rebellion leading to the Anti Enclosure Acts of 1489 and 1516. Agrarian revolts still occurred (1549, 1607, 1626-1632).

Decline of Western European Serfdom

Medieval serfs were required to work manorial fields, mines, and forests and received the lord's protection, justice, and right to farm for their own subsistence.
France: Louis X of France decreed serfs could buy freedom (1315). The Jacquerie peasant revolt (1358) frightened nobles. Serfdom was mostly gone by the 1400s.
England: Black Death (1346-1353) reduced the labor force offering serfs new opportunities and allowing bargaining for improved conditions. Wat Tyler's Rebellion (1381) in England pressured nobility and clergy to reform the feudal system. Elizabeth I freed the last English serfs (1574).
Germany: Peasants' Revolt (1524-1525) against aristocracy was caused in part by anger over serfdom.

Growth of Eastern European Serfdom

Noble landowners of sparsely populated medieval eastern Europe offered peasants greater freedom to lure migration and settlement east.
Improved peasant conditions in western Europe after the Black Death (1346-1353) reduced eastern migration, while the eastern European population loss from plague incentivized lords to secure the remaining labor force with restrictive laws.
1400s-1800s: The rising economy of western Europe led to the importation of wheat from eastern Europe. Eastern land values rose, and poor tenants unable to afford rent were forced into serfdom. Prussia, Austria, Hungary, Poland-Lithuania, and Russia enforced a repressive feudal system.

Growth of Cities

1100s-1300s: The growth of late medieval trade led to the rise of market towns, often along rivers, and was also driven by major population growth prior to the late medieval demographic crisis.
Towns and cities were centers of commerce, princely courts, churches, government, and military offices.
Artisans organized craft guilds to ensure quality and regulate prices. Guilds resented feudal obligations to lords and demanded self-governance as chartered towns or free-cities.
Towns were led by nobles, bourgeoisie, and guild leaders. Most urban dwellers were artisans and free laborers. Many serfs escaped to urban centers and were considered free after a year and a day.
1500s: The population returned to preplague level. Grain prices rose, and the standard of living fell for some in urban areas.

Public Morality

The weakening of the Church shifted the enforcement of public morality to local governments.
Girolamo Savonarola called for Church renewal and destroyed secular art in a bonfire of the vanities during brief reign in Florence (1494-1497).
Calvinist Genevan Consistory (1541) closed taverns and investigated and punished dancing, card playing, and absence from sermons.
English Vagabond Acts (1495, 1531) allowed arrest, whipping, and enslavement of the homeless. Poor Laws (1597, 1601) sent those unable to work to poorhouses, able-bodied to Houses of Industry, and vagrants to House of Correction for short terms of hard labor.

Social Role of Women

La Querelle des Femmes (the Woman Question) was a feminist literary debate over women's property and legal rights, marriage, and roles in politics and religion.
Italian humanist Christine de Pizan challenged women's social limitations, but most Renaissance writers vilified females as antithetical to reason and objectivity and supported patriarchy.
Martin Luther and other Protestant leaders considered marriage women's proper role, praised marital sex, considered women equal to men spiritually, but insisted on female social subordination. They believed wives should be obedient, silent, and pious.
Single lower-class women worked diverse jobs-domestics, butchers, nurses, shopkeepers, weavers, and printers. Married women assisted husbands.

Folk Culture

Classical, Germanic, Celtic, and Slavic traditions influenced diverse regional folklore.
Saints' days festivals celebrated Jesus, Mary, and important saints. Lutherans and Anglicans continued saints' days, but Calvinists did not. Carnival offered social release in Catholic regions through drinking, masquerading, and dancing.
Blood sports such as bull-baiting, bear-baiting, dog-fighting, and cock-fighting were popular.
Prostitution was found near military garrisons, universities, and public baths. Prostitutes were required to wear distinct dress and have their health examined and their wages, rents, and hours regulated. A syphilis epidemic closed public baths and restricted activity to brothels. There were 7,000 prostitutes in Rome and over 11,000 in Venice in 1490.

Enforcement of Folk Communal Norms

Communal norms were upheld largely through public humiliation of the offenders.
Offenders often were locked in stocks or pillory and subjected to the scorn of passersby.
Communities unpleasantly serenaded reluctant couples through charivari custom to coerce them to wed.
Social offenders sometimes were paraded through the village backward on a donkey while being pelted with rotten vegetables.
Public whippings and brandings were delivered.

Witchcraft

Most Europeans believed in sorcery. Witchcraft was sorcery used to worship Satan in nocturnal "Sabbaths."
Malleus Maleficarum (Hammer of Witches) by Jacob Sprenger (1487) was the official Church guide for hunting witches.
Elderly single women, midwives, poor women, and unprotected young women were the primary victims, though some men were also accused.
Georg Faust (died c. 1541) was an alchemist and magician who inspired the legend of a doctor who sold his soul to the Devil in exchange for knowledge and pleasure.
Witch hunts reached a peak during the Wars of Religion (1560-1660). Up to 100,000 men and women were burned at stake. Witch hunts ended with the reestablishment of social order and an embrace of science.

Period 2: Westphalia to Vienna (1648 - 1815)

Interaction of Europe and the World

Global commercial links expanded into a worldwide trade network.
Mercantilism and the transatlantic slave-labor system maintained European control in the colonies.
Europeans were exposed to a greater number of representations of peoples outside Europe.
Colonial rivalry between Britain and France intensified in a series of wars on several continents.
Enlightenment ideas influenced the American Revolution, which then influenced the French Revolution.
The American and French Revolutions inspired the slave revolt in Haiti.
The Napoleonic Wars disrupted trade and influenced colonies.

Poverty and Prosperity

Agricultural products from the Americas and farming techniques of the Agricultural Revolution increased the food supply. The population grew.
Migration from rural to urban areas increased.
The putting-out system was a form of proto-industrialization.
The European-dominated global trade network fueled a consumer economy. Art and literature reflected the values of a commercial society. Free trade and a free market challenged mercantilist trade limitations.
The Enlightenment questioned social inequality.
The French Revolution and Napoleonic reforms promoted greater social equality.

Objective Knowledge and Subjective Visions

New public venues and print media increased public discourse and popularized rational and empirical thought.
Enlightenment spawned new political and economic theories. Scientific principles were applied to resolving social problems and organizing social institutions.
Enlightenment notions of natural religion and toleration challenged religious establishments.
As absolute monarchs extended their power and control, philosophers challenged absolutism and inspired liberal revolts.
The role of women in political life was debated.
The Catholic Church's influence was attacked during the French Revolution. Civil rights were granted to Jews.
The French Revolutionary era awoke nationalistic sentiments among European peoples.

States and Other Institutions of Power

Louis XIV epitomized absolutism in France. Britain and the Dutch Republic developed constitutional states.
Enlightenment philosophers studied the social contract, identified natural rights, and espoused egalitarianism. Increased literacy expanded public discourse.
Dynastic, colonial, and revolutionary wars challenged the balance of power.
Prussia, Austria, and Russia emerged as powerful states.
Warfare centralized state power during the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars and inspired nationalism both in France and French-occupied nations.
The role and rights of women and minorities were debated during the French Revolution.

Individual and Society

The Agricultural Revolution swelled the population and spurred urban migration.
The literate public expanded.
Rising life expectancy and societal prosperity changed attitudes regarding children.
The slave trade expanded and was criticized.
Women hosted Enlightenment salons providing venues for public discourse. Women's roles and rights were debated throughout the Enlightenment, French Revolution, and Napoleonic eras.
Feudal social relations were attacked during the French Revolution. Many aristocrats fled France and resisted the revolution.
Extreme measures were used to suppress counterrevolutionary activities during the Reign of Terror.
Napoleon promoted meritocracy in the French army and empire.

2.1 State Power

Absolute Monarchy

Jean Bodin laid the philosophical foundation of absolutism in Six Books of the Republic (1576). Writing during French religious wars, he sought order through a strong monarch answerable only to God.
Divine right theory holds that "God establishes kings as his ministers, and reigns through them over the people," -Jacques-Bénigne Bossuet, Politics Drawn from Holy Scripture (1679)
Kings are not subject to aristocracy, Church, or the people but exercise unrestricted power over the sovereign state and its people.
Absolutist tendencies of James I (r. 1603-1625) and Charles | (r. 1625-1649) of England contributed to the English Civil War.
Spanish monarchs were powerful but never absolute. Local authorities exercised a large degree of autonomy due to the nature of the Spanish dynastic union and the size of the empire.

Absolutism: Louis XIV, the Sun King

Louis XIV, the Sun King of France (r. 1643-1715), advised by Cardinal Mazarin, consolidated royal power over feudal elites after the Fronde (1648-1653) by forcing rebellious nobles to compete for the king's favor at the luxurious Palace of Versailles.
Louis XIV, Louis XV (r. 1715-1774), and Louis XVI (r. 1774-1792) exercised total legislative, executive, and judicial powers.
Finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert promoted mercantilism.
Louis XIV sought religious uniformity by revoking the Edict of Nantes (1685) ending toleration of Huguenots.
Louis XIV supported playwright Molière (Tartuffe, Bourgeois Gentleman), painter Hyacinthe Rigaud (portrait of Louis XIV), and composer Jean-Baptiste Lully. Louis XIV was often depicted as Apollo.

Absolutism: Wars of Louis XIV

Wars impoverished France but secured its borders.
After the Franco-Dutch War (1672-1678), Louis XIV emerged as Europe's most powerful monarch, and France gained territory from Spain, who was allied with the Dutch.
The Nine Years' War (1688-1697) against the Grand Alliance of Britain, Netherlands, Austria, Spain, Sweden, and Savoy was dedicated to halting French expansion fearing Louis XIV sought "Universal Kingship."
The death of the childless Hapsburg Charles Il of Spain led to the War of Spanish Succession (1701-1714). Louis XIV and allies fought Austria and its allies to install his grandson as Bourbon Philip V of Spain.
Treaty of Utrecht (1714) gave rise to the British Empire. Austria got the Spanish Netherlands.

Absolutism: Peter the Great

Peter I, the Great of Russia (r. 1682-1725), practiced variant of absolute monarchy known as tsarist autocracy.
He led the Grand Embassy tour (1697-1698) to the Netherlands, England, and the Holy Roman Empire. He studied Western culture and shipbuilding. Upon his return, he executed 1,200 rebellious Streltsy (Kremlin guards) and forced boyars (nobles) to shave beards and dress Western.
Modernization reforms: The Table of Ranks offered nobility for state service, encouraged math and science education, promoted metallurgy, reformed state administration, encouraged commerce, and subjected the Russian Orthodox Church to state authority.

Absolutism: Wars of Peter the Great

Peter the Great constructed the Russian navy to take the Turkish Black Sea port of Azov (1696)-
He defeated Sweden and captured the Baltic Sea coast in the Great Northern War (1700-1721).
The new capital port city of St. Petersburg was built as a "window on the West." Tens of thousands of conscripted serfs and Swedish prisoners of war died during construction. Baroque architecture of the city was influenced by Dutch, Danish, and Swedish styles rather than traditional Byzantine.

Growth of Prussia

The Hohenzollern dynasty ruled Brandenburg-Prussia.
The Great Elector Frederick William (r. 1640-1688) turned war-ravaged Prussia into a military state with aid of Junkers (nobles). He established a standing army and navy. The Diet of Brandenburg granted him power to tax without consent (1653). Great Elector Frederick William encouraged mercantilist trade. Immigrant Huguenots brought middle class technical and industrial skills after Louis XIV's Edict of Nantes (1685).
Junkers enforced serfdom and served the army and state bureaucracy.
Frederick I (r. 1688-1713) was awarded the title "King in Prussia" for aid during the War of Spanish Succession.
Frederick William I (r. 1713-1740), the "Soldier King," turned Prussia into "Sparta of the North." He avoided war and left Frederick II (r. 1740-1786) a powerful state and army.

Austrian Hapsburgs

After the Hapsburgs were exhausted by the Thirty Years' War, Emperor Ferdinand III (r. 1637-1657) centralized control of Austria and Bohemia but gave German princes the right to conduct foreign policy eroding Holy Roman imperial authority.
Hapsburgs gained Hungary and Balkan territory in modern Croatia, Bosnia, and Serbia in the Turkish War (1683-1699), which began Ottoman decline.
John III Sobieski of Poland (r. 1674-1696) led a massive charge of Winged Hussar cavalry lifting the Ottoman siege of Vienna (1683).
Francis Rákóczy led the Hungarian noble revolt (1703). Hungary gained some autonomy and was not incorporated fully into the Hapsburg Empire.
Emperor Charles VI's Pragmatic Sanction (1713) allowed Maria Theresa (r. 1740-1780) to be the only female Hapsburg ruler.

Enlightened Absolutism

Monarchs adopted rational, practical reforms that enhanced state and military power.
They believed their legitimacy came not from divine right but wise rule.
Frederick II, the Great of Prussia (r. 1740-1786) wrote an Anti-Machiavel essay(1740) arguing for a rational, benevolent monarchy pursuing the health and prosperity of subjects. He considered himself "first servant of the state."
Charles Ill of Spain (1759-1788) tried to revive sinking Spanish imperial fortunes, weakened the Church, supported scientific research, promoted university education, modernized agriculture, encouraged trade, avoided war, and pushed Spanish national unity.

Enlightened Absolutism: Frederick the Great of Prussia

Frederick II, the Great of Prussia (r. 1740-1786), gained territory and natural resources through the War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748), Seven Years' War (1756-1763), and First Partition of Poland (1772). He led battles and was considered a military tactical genius.
He modernized Prussian bureaucracy and allowed non-nobles to enter upper civil service. He encouraged industry through tariffs, introduced first tax-funded compulsory primary education for ages 5-13, increased the efficiency of judicial system, and abolished torture. He stockpiled grain to stabilize prices during poor harvests, drained swamps to open new farmland, founded the first veterinary school in Germany, and criticized hunting.
He aspired to be a philosopher king. He supported arts, composed 100 flute sonatas and four symphonies, and befriended Voltaire.

Enlightened Absolutism: Catherine the Great of Russia

Catherine Il, the Great of Russia (r. 1762-1796), expanded Russia south to the Black Sea, west through the Partitions of Poland, and east to Alaska.
She continued Peter l's reforms. Provincial administration was overhauled, new towns and cities were founded, and the number of government employees doubled.
She patronized arts, literature, and education. The Hermitage Museum began as her personal art collection. Smolny Institute for Noble Maidens was Europe's first state-funded higher education for women. She corresponded with Voltaire, Diderot, and d'Alembert.
Pugachev's Rebellion (1773-1775) sought the end of serfdom but was suppressed. Russian nobles were then freed from state service, and their authority over serfs increased. Nobles could punish serfs, even exiling them to hard labor in Siberia, but were restricted from killing the serfs.

Enlightened Absolutism: Maria Theresa of Austria

Maria Theresa fought the War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) and the Seven Years' War (1756-1763).
She taxed previously exempt nobles doubling state revenue, created a modem standing army, and promoted commerce and agriculture to improve peasants* lives.
She founded the Vienna General Hospital and mandated autopsies of hospital deaths to find causes of and reduce infant mortality. She championed inoculation against smallpox and vaccinated her 16 children.
She adopted Prussian-style mandatory elementary education.
She was a staunch Catholic, refused religious toleration, but outlawed witch burings and torture. She imposed harsh taxes on jews and considered expulsion.

Enlightened Absolutism: Joseph II of Austria

Joseph Il of Austria (r. 1765-1790) attempted a complete overhaul of Austrian Hapsburg society to align with Enlightenment principles.
He wanted an efficient, centralized, rational, secular state. He reduced feudalism and censorship and increased equality and freedom.
He abolished nobles' rights to fine or physically punish serfs or restrict their movement, choice of occupation, or marriage. He allowed serfs to purchase hereditary lands as free, peasant farmers.
He thought mother Maria Theresa's religious policies "unjust, impious, impossible, harmful and ridiculous" and removed restrictions on Protestants and Orthodox. He also eliminated many restrictions on Jews.
He faced stiff opposition from nobility and clergy. His successor Leopold II(r. 1790-1792) rescinded many reforms.

English Restoration

Charles Il of England (r. 1660-1685) came to power in Restoration. He was hedonistic compared to the preceding Puritan rule. He supported arts and sciences through the Royal Observatory and Royal Society.
The Great Plague of London (1665-1666) killed about 100,000 in the last major outbreak of bubonic plague in England.
Much of London was rebuilt after the Great Fire of London (1666). Christopher Wren built St. Paul's Cathedral and 50 other churches.
During the Exclusion Crisis (1679-1681), Whigs sought to remove the king's brother James, Duke of York, from succession because he was Catholic. Tories successfully upheld James's claim.

Constitutionalism: Glorious Revolution

James lI (r. 1685-1688) was Catholic and refreshed fears of religious conflict and absolutism. He had two Protestant daughters but the birth of his son in 1688 established Catholic succession.
Seven Protestant nobles invited James Il's Protestant son-in-law Dutch William of Orange to seize the throne and co-rule with wife Mary.
After the Glorious Revolution (1688), William Ill and Mary Il signed the English Bill of Rights ensuring Protestant rule and creating a constitutional monarchy sharing power with Parliament.
William III defeated James Il at the Battle of Boyne, Ireland (1690).
Jacobites in Scotland and Ireland supported ousted Stuart King James Il and his heirs and occasionally rebelled until 1745.

Constitutionalism: Rise of the UK of Great Britain

Bank of England established (1694) to raise funds to rebuild the navy following defeat in Nine Years' War against Louis XIV (1688-1697). Naval construction and economic organization fueled British industrial growth and naval supremacy in the 1700s.
The Act of Union (1707) joined England, Wales, and Scotland together as the United Kingdom of Great Britain. Ireland was added in 1801.
The Treaty of Utrecht (1714) ended the War of Spanish Succession. Britain got Gibraltar, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and asiento for slave trade. The treaty led to the rise of Britain as Great Power.
Insider trading, bribery, and wild speculation ruined investors in the South Sea Bubble (1720).

Constitutionalism: Early British Prime Ministers

Conservative promonarchy Tory and moderate pro parliamentary Whig parties competed in Parliament.
Robert Walpole (1721-1742) was the first Prime Minister. He led the Whigs to dominance in Parliament. He set an example for a good working relationship of the Cabinet with the monarch.
William Pitt the Elder (1756-1768) championed imperial expansion and led Britain during the Seven Years' War (1756-1763).
William Pitt the Younger (1783-1801, 1804-1806) defended Britain against France in the Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars (1793-1815).

Constitutionalism: Hanoverian Dynasty

Upon the death of the last Stuart monarch Anne (r. 1702-1714), the throne passed to German cousin George, Duke of Brunswick-Lüneburg.
George I (r. 1714-1727) started a new Hanoverian dynasty and supported the Enlightenment by allowing a free press and sheltering Voltaire during his exile from France.
George II (r. 1727-1760) influenced foreign policy, but Parliament ran domestic policy. The British Empire expanded.
George III (r. 1760-1820) ruled during the Seven Years' War (1756-1763), the American Revolution (1775-1783), and the French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars (1793-1815). He was nicknamed "Farmer George" for his support of the Agricultural Revolution. The British monarchy continued to lose political power and came to embody British morality.

Constitutionalism: Dutch Republic (1648 - 1678)

1600s: Amsterdam led Atlantic trade due to the Dutch East India Company, Stock Exchange, and Bank of Amsterdam.
Calvinist merchant oligarchies governed towns.
Stadtholders provided common defense and foreign policy, but the republic had no stadtholder from 1650 to 1672.
Anglo-Dutch Wars (1660-1678) and Franco-Dutch War (1672-1678) ended the Dutch Golden Age.
1672 was the "Year of Disaster." Dutch were redeloos, radeloos, reddeloos (irrational, desperate, helpless). Dykes opened and fields flooded to prevent French conquest of Holland. Dutch leaders Johan and Cornelius de Witt were lynched by an angry mob. William of Orange was appointed the new stadtholder.

Anglo - Dutch Wars

English East India Company agents were tortured and executed by Dutch East India Company agents in the Amboyna massacre (1623) in an intense rivalry for the spice trade.
Loss of trade to the Dutch inspired the mercantilist English Navigation Acts (1651) as pretext for English pirates to stop Dutch ships.
1652-1654: First war inconclusive.
1665-1667: The English captured New Netherland, which became New York.
The Great Plague (1665), Great Fire (1666), and later defeats led English to sue for peace.
1672-1674: England allied with France during the Franco-Dutch War, which ended in Dutch disaster and brought an end to the Dutch Golden Age.

Partitions of Poland

1648-1657: In their fight for independence, Ukrainian Cossacks led the Chmielnicki Revolt and massacred up to 200,000 Jews for links to szlachta (Polish nobility)-
1655-1660: The Swedish invasion led to the Deluge, a 1/3 decrease in the Polish population, and Poland's elimination as a great power.
Any szlachta member of Sejm (legislature) could halt legislation so laws required unanimous support. Poland was paralyzed by inaction.
Augustus Il (r. 1694-1733) was blocked from absolute monarchy by Silent Sejm (1717), but Poland fell under Russian influence.
1772, 1793, and 1795: Prussia, Austria, and Russia partitioned Poland.
1791: Catherine the Great restricted Jews to Pale of Settlement in western Russian Empire, holding 40%-50% of world Jewry at its peak.

Colonial Rivalry in America

Nine Years'/King William's War (1689-1697): There were no territorial changes.
The Spanish Succession/Queen Anne's War (1702-1711) ravaged Spanish Florida. Britain gained Hudson Bay, Newfoundland, and Nova Scotia. The French Acadians moved to Louisiana and became Cajuns.
In the War of Jenkins's Ear (1739-1748) Britain lost asiento but gained trade in the Spanish colonies.
The Austrian Succession/King George's War (1744-1748) was inconclusive.
In the Seven Years'/French and Indian War (1756-1763) France was defeated by Great Britain, lost Canada and the Ohio River valley but kept the sugar-rich Caribbean island of St. Domingue (Haiti),
During the American War of Independence (1775-1783), France, the Netherlands, and Spain supported American rebels against the British.

Colonial Rivalry in India

During the Carnatic Wars (1746-1763), French Joseph-François Dupleix and British Robert Clive allied with Indian leaders and vied for power in the subcontinent after the decline of the Mughal Empire.
Clive won British East India Company control of Bengal at the Battle of Plassey (1757) laying the foundation for British dominance in India.
The French agreed to support British claims and were allowed to maintain trading posts.

French Revolution: Causes

France was the center of Enlightenment and was influenced by the American Revolution (1775-1783) and U.S. Constitution (1787).
1777: Pierre Beaumarchais supplied arms used by American patriots to win Saratoga while his Figaro (1775-1792) mocked the French elite.
1778: The rebel victory at Saratoga and the diplomacy of Benjamin Franklin convinced France to enter the American War of Independence straining French national debt.
1780s: -50% of the annual budget paid only interest on loans. 6% of the budget supported royals and nobility at Versailles. Successive bad winters led to widespread starvation.
1789: Parlements and the literate public represented the general will of the French people more than the king. King Louis XVI called the first meeting of Estates-General since 1614 to deal with the financial crisis.

French Revolution: Outbreak

January 1789: Abbé Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès wrote What Is the Third Estate? decrying nobles as social parasites and stating that commoners represent the French nation.
June 20, 1789: The impasse over voting procedures in the Estates-General led the Third Estate to form the French National Constituent Assembly and take the Tennis Court Oath to write the constitution. Some nobles and clergy joined against King Louis XVI.
July 14, 1789: Commoners formed the National Guard and stormed Bastille Prison in Paris. American Revolutionary War hero Marquis de Lafayette was selected to command the National Guard.
July 17-August 2, 1789: Great Fear swept the countryside.

French Revolution: Liberal Victories

August 1789: The Constituent Assembly passed the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen. The feudal system and Ancién Regime privileges were abolished. Aristocratic émigrés fled.
October 1789: Starvation led to Women's March on Versailles. Louis XVI was forced to relocate to Paris while the Constitution of 1791 developed.
1790: Civil Constitution of the Clergy brought the Catholic Church in France under state control. Old provinces re-formed into new departments.

French Revolution: Birth of the First Republic

June 1791: Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette attempted to escape to the Austrian Netherlands. Esteem for the royal family plummeted.
October 1791: Constituent Assembly was replaced by the Legislative Assembly. Seating represented the left-right political divide.
August 10, 1792: Sans-culottes of Paris Commune stormed Tuileries Palace and captured Louis XVI. The September Massacres of 1,200-1,400 prisoners (mostly nobles and clergy) followed.
September 20, 1792: The Prussian invasion was stopped at Valmy.
September 22, 1792: The Legislative Assembly was replaced by the National Convention. The monarchy was abolished, and the First French Republic was established. The date was later selected to begin the Revolutionary Calendar.
January 21, 1793: Louis XVI was beheaded by guillotine.

French Revolution: Jacobin Leaders

The Jacobins were a political club of bourgeois revolutionaries.
The Girondins were moderate Jacobins. They supported political but opposed complete social and economic equality. They pushed for war to unite people and spread revolution but opposed Louis XVI's execution.
Montagnard (Mountain) were radical Jacobins and were backed by sans-culottes.
Jean-Paul Marat published Montagnard newspaper L'Ami du Peuple.
George Danton led call for the end of monarchy and establishment of the Republic. First leader of the Committee of Public Safety.
Maximillien Robespierre was a persuasive speaker, led the Montagnard faction, was popular with the poor of Paris, and led the Committee of Public Safety during the Reign of Terror.

French Revolution: Revolutionary Wars

1792: Fearing intervention, France declared preemptive war on Austria. Prussia, French émigrés, Britain, Spain, Portugal, the Netherlands, and the Italian states joined against the revolutionary regime. Prussian invasion repulsed at Valmy.
1793-1794: The Committee of Public Safety imposed the Reign of Terror to unify France and reverse battlefield defeats. Mass conscription drafted 800,000 soldiers into 14 armies, outnumbering the French enemies nearly four to one.
1795: The Netherlands was captured, and Spain and Prussia sued for peace.
1796-1797: Napoleon Bonaparte drove Austria out of Italy.
1798: Napoleon invaded Egypt. Egyptology was introduced with the discovery of the Rosetta Stone.
1801-1802: Austria (Treaty of Lunéville) and Britain (Treaty of Amiens) sued for peace.

French Revolution: Reign of Terror

September 1793-July 1794: The Dictatorial Committee of Public Safety led by Robespierre conducted the Reign of Terror.
At least 300,000 enemies of the Revolution (nobles, clergy, hoarders, draft dodgers, counterrevolutionaries) were arrested, 42,000 were executed (17,000 by guillotine), and 10,000 died in prison. Around 150,000 were killed pacifying royalist counter-revolution in Vendée.
General Maximum Law fixed prices on grain, meat, and oil. State economic planning of war goods.
Jacques Hébert led de-Christianization, Church lands and wealth were confiscated, symbols and art were destroyed, the calendar was replaced, priests were executed, and Catholicism was replaced by the atheistic Cult of Reason and the deistic Cult of the Supreme Being.

French Revolution: Revolutionary Reforms

Feudalism was abolished.
Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen was issued.
France was reorganized into departments.
Protestants and Jews were given legal equality, Church and state were formally separated,
Slavery was abolished in the colonies,
The Christian calendar was replaced by the rational Revolutionary calendar, Seven day weeks were replaced by ten day weeks to eliminate Sundays.
3 Rational metric system was adopted,
The tricolor, and French national anthem, La Marseilles, were introduced.
Divorce laws were loosened,
3 Free primary school (lycées) education was available to all.
Napoleonic French civil law code was adopted.

French Revolution: Role of Women

Pre-1789: Women were "passive citizens" with no political rights. Encyclopédie contributor Louis de Jaucort argued women can be men's equals pointing to English and Russian female leaders.
Olympe de Gouges wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Woman (1791).
Charlotte Corday assassinated radical journalist Jean-Paul Marat.
Pauline Léon and Claire Lacombe led the Society of Revolutionary Republican Women. Théroigne de Méricourt called for "legions of amazons" claiming the right to bear arms would transform women into citizens, was arrested, flogged, and sentenced to an insane asylum.
Many female activists were executed during the Reign of Terror for "conspiring against the unity and indivisibility of the Republic."
The Napoleonic Code confirmed women's legal second-class status.

Haitian Revolution

1789: St. Domingue was the most profitable French colony, and the world's largest sugar producer. 32,000 whites, 452,000 slaves (2/3 African-bom).
Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen challenged ideas of equality.
1790: Free men of color Julien Raimond and Vincent Ogé called for civil equality and suffrage. Ogé was executed by the colonial governor.
1791: Toussaint L'Ouverture led the revolt of 100,000 slaves.
1792: The National Assembly granted freedom to all slaves in Haiti.
1802: Napoleon retook the island. L'Ouverture died as a French captive.
The French were defeated at Vertières (1803). Jean-Jacques Dessaline was named emperor of Haiti (1804). The remaining 3,000 to 5,000 whites were massacred. The Haitian Revolution was the most successful slave revolt in history.
The revolution prompted Napoleon's sale of the Louisiana Territory to the United States.

Napoleonic Empire: Rise

The Reign of Terror ended by Thermidorian Reaction (1794). The Moderate Directory ran France under a new constitution (1795-1799).
1799: Napoleon led a coup d'etat and was named the First Consul of the conservative, authoritarian Consulate.
1804: Napoleon was crowned emperor. Britain, Austria, and Russia renewed war.
1805: Grande Armée defeated the Austro-Russian force at Austerlitz. The Holy Roman Empire was replaced by the Confederation of the Rhine. The British won the naval battle of Trafalgar.
1806: The Continental System was established to blockade Britain. Prussia was crushed at Jena.

Napoleonic Empire: Apex

1807: Russians signed Treaties of Tilsit, marking the apex of the Napoleonic Empire.
Napoleon maintained power by crowning brothers and marrying sisters to European royals forming strategic alliances.
1808: Napoleon launched the Peninsular War to place brother Joseph on the Spanish throne. The British supported stiff guerrilla resistance.
1810: He divorced Josephine and married Austrian princess Marie-Louise after defeating Austria. Napoleon governed 70 million in the largest empire since Rome.

Napoleonic Empire: Social Reforms

Catholic Church relations were restored in Concordat of 1801.
Napoleonic Code (1804) cemented legal equality, abolition of feudalism, property rights, religious freedom, and meritocracy.
Jews were accepted into the French nation.
Wives were subordinate to their husbands but gained the right to divorce.
Émigrés were allowed to return.
Imperial University regulated state education. Lycée secondary boarding schools taught liberal studies, military discipline.

Napoleonic Empire: State Control

Plebiscite votes gained popular support.
The Legion of Honor was based on merit and was awarded for both military and civil service.
Law enforcement was centralized through préfects. Joseph Fouche led the secret police. Gendarmerie was the national paramilitary police force.
Censorship was practiced to limit bad news and contrary opinion. Number of Paris newspapers dropped from 60 (1799) to four (1814).
The Ministries of Finance and Treasury, efficient tax collection, and the Bank of France were created; the budget was balanced; and the national debt was eliminated.
Agriculture was stimulated with research, exhibitions, and prizes. Grain prices were fixed, and the textile industry expanded.
Roads were paved, and ports and canals were built.

Napoleonic Empire: Fall

1812-1813: Renewed hostilities provoked a catastrophic failed invasion of Russia. Napoleon raised a new army afterward but was defeated at Leipzig.
1814: Allies captured Paris. Napoleon was exiled to Elba, and the Bourbon dynasty was restored under Louis XVIII.
1815: Napoleon escaped Elba and returned to power for 100 days. The Duke of Wellington defeated the French at Waterloo.
1821: Napoleon died imprisoned at St. Helena.

Nationalist Responses to French Revolution

Revolutionary armies exported "liberty, equality, brotherhood" slogans and national self-determinism. Nationalism made Napoleonic wars "people's wars" instead of monarchs' wars.
Nationalistic reaction was strongest in Germany.
Spaniards resisted Joseph Bonaparte. Francisco Goya commemorated the Madrid uprising (Third of May 1808, 1814). French occupation of Spain provoked nationalist revolutions in Spanish America.
Opposition to Napoleon unified Britain, which was socially strained by oppressive conditions of the early Industrial Revolution.

Congress of Vienna

1814-1815: Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich hosted Russian Tsar Alexander I, Prussian King Frederick William III, British Lord Castlereagh, and French minister Talleyrand at the Congress of Vienna to reestablish conservative order.
Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, and Russia formed the Concert of Europe to maintain an international balance of power. It was also called the Congress System.
Autocratic, conservative monarchies of Austria, Prussia, and Russia formed theHoly Alliance subgroup.
Louis XVIII of the Bourbon dynasty returned to France.
Political borders returned to 1789.
Conservative monarchies established the principle of intervention to squelch liberal revolutions and maintain legitimate order.

2.2 Commercial Expansion

The Market Economy

François Quesnay and Anne Robert Jacques Turgot were French Enlightenment physiocrats who believed wealth consists only of products of the soil rather than coins amassed from a high balance of trade from mercantilist commerce. They argued for productive agricultural development free of government restraint.
Scottish Adam Smith challenged mercantilist protectionist laws in Wealth of Nations (1776) and promoted the "invisible hand" of free market laissez-faire classical economics.
The French National Assembly passed Le Chapelier law 1791) banning guilds and artisan associations, forbidding strikes, and proclaiming free enterprise.
David Ricardo suggested the Iron Law of Wages, which states that real income of workers will always remain near subsistence level.

The Agricultural Revolution

British agricultural improvements swelled the population from 5.5 million (1700) to 9 million (1801). Output increased 270% between 1700 and 1870. Yields were 80% higher than Continental average in the 1800s.
Lack of internal tariffs, customs barriers, and feudal tolls created a national agricultural market by 1700. Farmers had to be efficient and incorporate the latest techniques to be low-cost producers.
The enclosure movement created larger, consolidated land holdings.
Norfolk crop rotation replenished soil with turnips and clover.
Jethro Tull made the seed drill (1701). The Dutch imported the efficient Chinese mouldboard plough. Joseph Foljambe made a cast iron plough (1730).
Dutch Cornelius Vermuyden drained British wetlands adding 10%-30% more arable land. Road network grew 400% from 1500 to 1700.
Robert Bakewell and Thomas Coke selectively bred animals.

Cottage Industry (putting-out System)

Cottage industry was a method of subcontracting production of goods, especially the weaving of cloth.
Merchants supplied, or put out, raw materials to rural workers to complete at home and then paid piecework for the finished product.
Well-suited for rural areas, cottage industry let workers supplement income in spare time without having to travel and without loss of time for farm or housework. It allowed women to watch children.
It created wealthier peasants less dependent on extended family.
Domestic production undermined guild regulations and began industrial employment of women and children.
Reluctance of cottage weavers to work in textile mills led to the use of abandoned children in early factories. This practice was made illegal in 1802.

Financial Institutions & Practices

Dutch Tulipmania (1636-1637), the French Mississippi Company (1684-1720), and the English South Sea Company (1711-1720) were early speculative investment bubbles.
The Great Fire of London (1666) led Nicholas Barbon to open fire on the "Insurance Office for Houses" backed by the Royal Exchange.
Edward Lloyd's Coffee House of London (est. 1688) was the venue for merchants to discuss shipping, especially of slave trade. Lloyd's was awarded a monopoly to insure ships against "perils of the sea."
William Talbot and Thomas Allen were the first to offer life insurance through the Amicable Society for a Perpetual Assurance Office (1706).
The Bank of Amsterdam (1609), Bank of England (1694), and Bank of France (1800) were early central banks.
London was the European financial capital by the 1700s.

Property Rights

Calvinists emphasized the Protestant work ethic-hard work, frugality, social success, & wealth as signs of salvation.
In the English Civil War (1642-1649), Levellers believed property earned as fruit of one's labor was sacred under the commandment "thou shall not steal" and conceived of the political right not to be deprived of property. In contrast, Diggers saw private property as unjust and argued for communal ownership of land and a guaranteed adequate standard of living for all.
In Second Treatise on Civil Government (1689), John Locke argued property owners should have civil and political rights proportional to the amount of property owned. He stated that it is the duty of the State to secure these rights for individuals.

Mercantilism

Mercantilism is based on the belief that there is a finite amount of wealth in the world. State power is grown by building monetary reserves through a positive balance of trade.
Positive trade is achieved through high tariffs, monopolistic trade with overseas colonies, bans of export of gold and silver, and support for manufacturing.
The English Navigation Acts (1651) requiring all English shipping to be on English ships triggered the Anglo-Dutch Wars (1652-1674).
French finance minister Jean-Baptiste Colbert (1662-1683) limited imports, favored exports, organized industries into guilds, regulated production, and developed roads and canals.

Abolition of Transatlantic Slave Trade

English Aphra Behn wrote fictional anti slavery Oroonoko (1688).
Spain awarded asiento monopoly contract for slave trade to merchants. Britain was awarded a 30-year asiento to supply 4,800 slaves per year to Spanish colonies in Treaty of Utrecht (1713)-
Somerset Case (1772) ruled that slavery was inconsistent with English Common Law and that slaves could not be forcibly removed from Britain. Many interpreted this to mean slaves became free upon arrival in Britain, and this view fueled the abolitionist movement.
The French National Assembly granted freedom to slaves (1792) after the Haitian slave revolt.
William Wilberforce championed the Slave Trade Act (1807), which stoppedBritish slave trade.
Slavery was formally abolished in European colonies by 1863, but de facto exploitation and human trafficking continued.

Development of a Consumer Culture: Sugar, Tea, Chocolate

Sugar was a luxury until 1700, but British consumption grew from 4 to 18 pounds per capita by 1800. It was 1/5 of European imports, and 4/5 was grown in the Caribbean. St. Domingue was the largest producer.
The Dutch imported tea from China (1606). It was popularized in English coffeehouses. The British imported 24 million pounds of tea by 1801.
Chocolate became a bitter Spanish court beverage served with sugar, vanilla, and pepper after the Aztec conquest (1528). Pope Alexander VII declared that chocolate drinks did not violate religious fasts (1662). Chocolate remained an elite treat until Industrial Revolution steam engines sped processing. Dutch chemist Coenraad van Houten improved quality beginning mass consumption (1828).

Development of a Consumer Culture: Silk, Tobacco, Rum

Silk trade centered in Lyon, France, by the 1500s. Huguenots took production to England after the Edict of Nantes was revoked (1685). The Jacquard loom (1801) allowed complex mass production. French workers fearing unemployment led Canut revolts (1831, 1834).
Tobacco spread from Spain by 1571. Many hailed it as panacea, but james I of England called it "loathsome, hatefull, harmefull, dangerous." Virginia sold 25 million pounds per year by the 1680s.
Rum was first distilled from sugar in the 1600s. It became colonial New England's largest industry. American colonists consumed an average of 3 gallons per year. British sailors received daily rum ration until 1970.

Development of a Consumer Culture: Coffee

The Dutch colonies Java, Sumatra, Ceylon, and Suriname were the main coffee suppliers.
Coffeehouses opened in Istanbul (1554), Venice, (1645), London, and Oxford (1652). Over 3,000 coffeehouses in England by 1675 were "seats of liberty" where politics was discussed.
Insurance giant Lloyd's of London, the London Stock Exchange, and Sotheby's and Christie's auction houses started as cafés.
Coffee came to Vienna from beans left after the failed Turkish siege (1683).
Voltaire, Rousseau, and Diderot met for coffee in Paris.
Women frequented coffeehouses in Germany but were banned from those in England and France.
J.S. Bach composed "Coffee Cantata" (1732-1735).
Americans preferred coffee after the Boston Tea Party (1773).

Golden Age of Piracy

1655: French buccaneers struck throughout the Caribbean Sea from Tortuga. Port Royal, Jamaica, became a refuge for English and Dutch pirates.
1668: Pirate Henry Morgan profitably raided Porto Bello, the center of Spanish trade in America.
1673-1689: Naval administrator Samuel Pepys professionalized the British Royal Navy.
1689-1698: Scottish pirate-hunter-turned-pirate William Kidd had a famous career striking Indian Ocean trade from the Pirate Round route near Madagascar.
1716-1726: Privateers who turned pirate after the War of Spanish Succession included Edward "Blackbeard" Teach, "Black Sam" Bellamy, "Calico Jack" Rackham, Anne Bonny, and "Black Bart" Roberts.

2.3 The Age of Reason

The Social Contract: Thomas Hobbes

Leviathan (1651): State of nature before formation of human societies was "continual fear and violent death" and "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short."
Hobbes defended absolutism but opposed divine right. The state receives absolute sovereignty from social contract rather than God. Individuals surrender personal liberty to the state in return for collective security.
He reflected the results of the English Civil War (1642-1651) in which King Charles I, defender of divine right, was succeeded by the republican Commonwealth, which acted as a military dictatorship under Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell.

The Social Contract: John Locke

Two Treatises of Government (1689): Humanity is natural tabula rasa (blank slate) whose good or bad behavior mirrors its treatment.
State sovereignty is received from "consent of the governed." Individual rights are not surrendered in social contract.
The role of the state is the preservation of natural rights to life, liberty, and private property. If the state fails, citizens are entitled to revolt.
Locke heavily influenced the American Declaration of Independence.
He reflected the results of the English Glorious Revolution (1688) in which Catholic King James Il was overthrown at the behest of Protestant Parliamentary leaders. William Ill and Mary Il signed the English Bill of Rights (1689) limiting monarchical power and guaranteeing individual rights.

The Social Contract: Jean-Jacques Rousseau

The Social Contract (1762) argued for small, direct democracies in which state authority is derived from popular sovereignty and reflects the general will of the people.
Rousseau advocated education to develop character and moral virtue through the use of reason.
He heavily influenced the Jacobin phase of French Revolution and, later, totalitarian regimes that claimed to represent the general will, including Nazis and Soviet Communists.

The Enlightenment: Baruch Spinoza

Enlightenment philosophes promoted science, human progress through education, reformed government, legal equality, fair justice, and religious tolerance. They considered the nature of God and of humans.
Dutch Jewish Baruch Spinoza wrote Ethics (1677), challenging Jewish and Christian theology. He was a Rationalist who believed in the metaphysical unity of God and Nature as one and the same.

The Enlightenment: Bernard de Fontenelle

French Bernard de Fontenelle made science accessible to a broad audience in Plurality of Worlds (1686) solidifying acceptance of Copernican heliocentric theory.

The Enlightenment: Pierre Bayle

French Pierre Bayle was skeptical of many philosophies and called for religious toleration in the Historical and Critical Dictionary (1697).

The Enlightenment: John Locke

English John Locke in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689) argued that humans are born as tabula rasa (blank slate) and can improve through education and environment.
Two Treatises of Government (1689) argued that state sovereignty is received from "consent of the governed." The role of the state is the preservation of natural rights to life, liberty, and private property (estate).

The Enlightenment: Baron de Montesquieu

French Baron de Montesquieu critiqued French society and Christian practices in Persian Letters (1721)-
Spirit of the Laws (1748) called for constitutional government with the separation of executive, legislative, and judicial powers and due process of law including a fair trial and presumption of innocence; the freedom of thought, speech, and assembly; and an end to slavery. Montesquieu influenced the writing of the U.S. Constitution.

The Enlightenment: David Hume

Scottish David Hume analyzed psychology in Human Nature (1738-1740) believing passion not reason governs human behavior.
He applied the scientific method to philosophy and concluded nothing can be known beyond empirical experience and no theory of reality is possible.

The Enlightenment: Benis Diderot & Jean-Baptiste d’ Alembert

French Denis Diderot and Jean-Baptiste le Rond d'Alembert edited Encyclopédie (1751-1772) promoting Enlightenment thought by rationally organizing all knowledge as branches of History, Philosophy, or Poetry.
Louis de Jaucort wrote about 25% of the articles.

The Enlightenment: Voltaire

French Voltaire, the prolific author of Candide (1759), used satire to critique the Catholic Church, justice systems, slavery, war, and ignorance.
He advocated freedom of expression and religious toleration.

The Enlightenment: Jean-Jacques Rousseau

French Jean-Jacques Rousseau saw uneven distribution of private property as the source of all Inequality (1755).
He criticized progress unchecked by civic morality and duty; decried decadent, corrupt civilization; and praised noble savages.
Emile, or On Education (1762), explored character and moral development necessary to be virtuous in an imperfect society.
The Social Contract (1762) states that authority is derived from popular sovereignty and should reflect the general will of the people. He heavily influenced the French Revolution.

The Enlightenment: Cesare Beccaria

Italian Cesare Beccaria condemned torture and the death penalty in On Crimes and Punishments (1764).

The Enlightenment: Paul d’Holbach

French Baron Paul d'Holbach denied God's existence in the System of Nature (1770) and viewed Christian institutions as obstacles to social improvement.
Morality should be founded in service to society in pursuit of Happiness.

The Enlightenment: Edward Gibbon

British Edward Gibbon scathingly attributed Decline and Fall of Roman Empire (1776-1789) to Christian pacifism sapping Roman civic virtue.
He believed the medieval era was a superstitious Dark Age but the revival of reason would allow humanity to resume its progress.

The Enlightenment: Immanuel Kant

German Immanuel Kant fused empirical (knowledge from experience) and rational (knowledge from reason) philosophies in Critique of Pure Reason (1781).
He challenged people to "Dare to Know" in "What Is Enlightenment?" (1784) criticizing those who are content to follow church and monarchy and lack courage for independent thought.
He called for universal republican governments and international cooperation in Perpetual Peace (1795)-

The Enlightenment: Moses Medelssohn

German Jew Moses Mendelssohn defended freedom of conscience in Jerusalem (1783). He argued that all religious truths could be reasoned and celebrated Jewish legal, ritual, and moral law.
He sought religious toleration and emancipation for Jews from social, cultural, political, economic restrictions to incorporate them into mainstream European society.

The Enlightenment: Edmund Burke

British Edmund Burke warned against reckless democracy unguided by aristocracy in Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790).
He celebrated respect for tradition, social hierarchy, and property rights over speculative political innovation. He is the Father of Conservatism.

The Enlightenment: Marquis de Condorcet

French Marquis de Condorcet argued expanding knowledge would lead to a utopian society of increased individual freedom, material wealth, and moral compassion in Progress of the Human Mind (1793).
He called for free public education and equal rights for women.

The Enlightenment: Political Role of Women

Madame Geoffrin and Madame Necker hosted salons for philosophers to discuss ideas.
Marquis de Condorcet called for women's suffrage and For the Admission of the Rights of Citizenship for Women (1790).
Olympe de Gouges wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Woman (1791) after the French Revolution failed to address gender equality.
Mary Wollstonecraft penned the early feminist treatise A Vindication of the Rights of Women (1792) arguing for equal rights and education.

The Enlightenment: Institutions

Salons were polite social gatherings to share and discuss ideas.
Coffeehouses in England were centers of stimulating political discussion "where you have the right to read all the papers for and against the government." Charles II taught them "places where the disaffected met, and spread scandalous reports" about him.
Academies of art, literature, language, science, and military proliferated in the 1600s and 1700s, including Leopoldina, Prussian Academy of Arts, Académie française, Royal Society of London, and École Militaire.
Lending libraries like Bodleian (1598), Bibliothèque Mazarine (1648), and Österreichische Nationalbibliothek disseminated knowledge.
Masonic lodges spread from Britain to the Continent in the 1700s. Freemasons espoused Enlightenment principles.

Literate Public

The general public was educated unlike the illiterate masses, the people.
John Locke explored the role of public opinion in shaping social behavior in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1689).
German Johann Carolus began the first newspaper Relation of Strasbourg (1605). Amsterdam was the early nexus of international news. The first British daily was edited by Elizabeth Mallet (1702).
German Erbauliche Monaths Unterredungen (1663) was the first literary periodical. British Gentleman's Magazine (1731) was the first general interest periodical.
Over 500,000 books were published in the 1600s. Nearly one million were published in the 1700s.
Libelles (pamphlets) flourished during the English Civil War and French Fronde.
Censorship was widespread, especially in Enlightenment France. English John Milton defended freedom of expression in Areopagitica (1644). Sweden (1766) and Denmark-Norway (1770) were the first to guarantee freedom of press.

Representations of Non-Europeans

Jesuit publications exposed educated Europeans to distant people.
Enlightenment views of progress held that civilizations developed through stages culminating in superior capitalist, urban society. "Backwards" people incapable of this stage needed guidance.
Native Americans, sub-Saharan Africans, Asian hunters, fishers, and nomadic herdsmen were considered "savage" societies living by laws of nature without higher law, learning, religion, or morals.
Native American lack of exposure of Abrahamic religions led to questioning of biblical Genesis and Christian doctrine.
David Hume reflected on the development of religion from idolatry to monotheism to rational deism and used "primitive" Native American religion as proof of its cultural inferiority.

Representations of Native Americans

Some saw Native Americans having Eden-like innocence to be protected. John Locke embodied this: "In the beginning all the world was America."
Rousseau in Discourse on Inequality (1755) and James Adair in History of the American Indians (1775) criticized corrupt, immoral European society from the perspective of wise, honest Native American "noble savages."
Others saw Native Americans as cruel, immoral, stupid bestial semihumans prone to sodomy, cannibalism, and human sacrifice and as obstacles to progress and civilized settlement. Comte de Buffon in Histoire Naturelle (1749-1804) connected the "savage" natives to the "newness" of the American continent.

Representations of Polynesians

French Louis-Antoine de Bougainville reinforced the "noble savage" concept by giving a romantic description of blissfully innocent Tahitians living in quaint earthly paradise in "A Voyage Around the World (1771).
Polish Johann and Georg Forster of British James Cook's second expedition gave a scientific, unbiased description of Tahitians in Voyage Round the World (1778).

Representations of Africans

Mungo Park's Travels in the Interior Districts of Africa (1799) offered the first realistic portrayal of Africans. Reported West African fears that slaves were victims of European cannibalism.
Human zoos exhibited indigenous peoples. "Hottentot Venus" Saartjie Baartman's steatopygia was on display in London (1810).

Representations of Asian Civilizations

Orientalists studied Asian cultures after 1650. Safavid Persia, Mughal India, and Qing China were seen as being on par with Europe. Some saw them in a positive light regarding them as perhaps better than European society. Others viewed them more negatively concluding that they were immobile and incapable of more progress.
British William Jones and Charles Wilkins and French Abraham Anquetil-Duperron and Joseph de Guignes explored Islamic, Indian, and Chinese law and religion. Jones proposed common Indo-European language origin, which some welcomed as proof of biblical Genesis.
Chinese history conflicted with biblical history. The appreciation of Chinese civilization was linked to Christian skepticism, Enlightenment advocacy of natural religion, and religious tolerance.
François Quesnay admired Chinese "Oriental Despotism" which empowered merit-based scholars rather than aristocrats.

The Free Market

In the Economic Table (1758), French Physiocrat François Quesnay identified national wealth with yearly national income, not stockpiled gold bullion.
British Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations (1776) was an anti mercantilism manifesto. He argued for laissez-faire free market capitalism guided by an "invisible hand" and value-added wealth creation. He focused on consumption and labor.
Jeremy Bentham's Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789) called for states to act for the "greatest happiness of the greatest number" of people. His position is the precursor to welfare economics seeing economic growth as means for creating full employment.
David Ricardo's Iron Law of Wages stated worker income will always be near-subsistence.

Natural Religion

Natural religion considers God, spirits, and the supernatural as part of nature, not separate from it.
German Matthias Knutzen published the first atheist pamphlets (1673).
British John Toland developed Deism, which rejected Christian revelation and used reason and observation to support the existence of the divine being in Christianity Not Mysterious (1694).
British John Wesley founded Methodism (1738) emphasizing missionary service and rejecting the limited salvation of Calvinism.
David Hume expressed skepticism in Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (1748) and Natural History of Religion (1757).
French atheist Baron d'Holbach wrote Christianity Unveiled (1766) and System of Nature (1770), which deist Voltaire denounced.
British William Palley offered the divine watchmaker analogy in Natural Theology (1802). God's design is evident in physical and social order.

Religious Toleration

The Dutch tolerated Jews, Catholics, and others for sake of commerce.
Anglican dissenter groups proliferated during the English Civil War-Levelers, Diggers, Quakers, Seekers, Ranters, and more. The Act of Uniformity (1662), Test Act (1673), and Exclusion Act (1679) curbed Dissenter and Catholic freedoms.
Jansenism, a French Catholic movement influenced by Calvinism, was popular among parlements and contributed to revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685).
The pope denounced Jansenism (1713).
"No opinion is worth burning your neighbor for." —Voltaire
German Gotthold Lessing plea for tolerance in Nathan the Wise (1779), a play set in Jerusalem during the Third Crusade.
Revolutionary France emancipated Jews (1791) granting equality and citizenship. Napoleon spread this idea throughout the French Empire (1806).

Rococo

Rococo evolved from the ornate Catholic Baroque to a lighter, less-dramatic, more superficial, jovial, graceful, secular style.
It reflects a shift from the 17th-century religious conflicts to the 18th-century prosperous, elegant, feminine tastes of French nobility and aspiring bourgeois.
French Antoine Watteau showed a festive Pilgrimage to Cythera (1717), the island of Venus. François Boucher painted Madame de Pompadour (1759). Jean-Honoré Fragonard showed playful nobles in The Swing (1766).
British Thomas Gainsborough (Mr. and Mrs. Andrews, 1750) portrayed rigid English gentry and sweeping landscapes.
German Balthasar Neumann built Residenz in Bavaria. Matthäus Pöppelmann built Zwinger in Saxony.

Neoclassicism

It celebrated Greco-Roman culture in imperial Britain, and in republican France and America.
Roman ruins excavated at Heracleum (1738) and Pompeii (1748) renewed classical interest.
Jacques-Louis David painted French Revolution and Napoleonic propaganda-Oath of Horatii (1785), Death of Marat (1793), and Coronation of Napoleon (1806)-
Antonio Canova sculpted Perseus with Head of Medusa (c. 1799) and Napoleon as Mars the Peacemaker (1806).
Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres sat Napoleon I Upon His Throne (1806) and depicted grand Jupiter and Thetis (1813).
Elgin Marbles were taken from the Parthenon in Athens, Greece, to the British Museum (1806).
French Arc de Triomphe (1806-1836) was modeled after the Roman Arch of Titus.

Classical Music

Baroque music (c. 1600-c. 1750) developed tonal string-instrument concertos and operas mostly for court performance. Composers include Pachelbel (Canon in D, c. 1680), J.S. Bach (Brandenburg Concertos, 1721), Vivaldi (Four Seasons,1725), and Handel (Messiah, 1742).
Classical music (c. 1750-c. 1820) was lighter and simpler, with more variety and mood changes. The harpsichord gave way to the piano. Composers include C.P.E. Bach (Symphony in E Minor, 1756), Salieri (Fair of Venice, 1772), Mozart (Marriage of Figaro, 1786), and Haydn (Surprise Symphony, 1791).
Romantic music (c. 1804-c. 1910) infused powerful emotions from composers coming of age or born in the Revolutionary era. Composers include Beethoven (Fifth Symphony, 1808), Rossini (Barber of Seville, 1816), von Weber (Der Freischütz, 1821), and Berlioz (Symphonie Fantastique, 1830).

18th-Century British Literature

Daniel Defoe's daring Robinson Crusoe (1719) popularized novels.
Jonathan Swift's satire Gulliver's Travels (1726) amused readers.
Samuel Richardson wrote Pamela (1740) and Clarissa (1748), epistolary novels told through letters.
Henry Fielding traced the comic History of Tom Jones (1749).
Laurence Stern's bizarre meta-fictional Tristram Shandy (1759) is considered to be one of the all-time greatest novels.
Horace Walpole told a gothic horror tale in Castle of Otranto (1764).
William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge began the English Romantic movement with Lyrical Ballads (1798).
Jane Austen wrote sentimental romances of English gentry in Sense and Sensibility (1811) and Pride and Prejudice (1813).

Emotional Challenge to Reason

Jean-Jacques Rousseau criticized civilization's decadence and celebrated the purity of the "noble savage." Emotional Julie (1761) began the shift from Enlightenment reason to Romantic feeling.
Enlightenment led to the rise of mass politics. French people rose together to storm the Bastille and overthrow Ancien Régime.
The French Revolution and Napoleonic Wars inspired nationalism. Mass conscript French army sang La Marseillaise while marching through Europe. German, Spanish, British, and Russian nations united in opposition to French occupation.
German nationalism grew as a Romantic intellectual reaction against French Enlightenment rationalism. Envy of French power also inspired German revitalization.

Goethe

Johann Wolfgang von Goethe started the German pre-Romantic Sturm und Drang (Storm and Stress) literary movement emphasizing powerful emotion over Enlightenment reason.
Painful, unrequited love triggers suicide in Sorrows of Young Werther (1774). "Werther Fever" swept Europe. Young men's fashion followed the character's dress and inspired copycat suicides.
God bet demon Mephistopheles in the play Faust (Part 1, 1808; Part 2, 1832). The doctor sells his soul to the devil for transcendent, mystical knowledge beyond limits of reason.
Faust was cited by writers G.W.F. Hegel, Friedrich Nietzsche, Sigmund Freud, and Carl Jung. The story inspired music by Wolfgang Mozart, Ludwig Beethoven, Johannes Brahms, Richard Wagner, Hector Berlioz, and Gustav Mahler.

German Romantic Nationalism

G.W. Friedrich Hegel described Zeitgeist (spirit of an age) as the time when a people are key historical actors. He argued that nationalism binds societies together in times of feudal and religious decline.
Johann Gottfried Herder in Philosophy of the History of Mankind (1784) showed that physical geography shaped national character, or "genius," which differed from French philosophers who emphasized the universality of human character. He coined the term "nationalism," celebrating German language, patriotism.
Johann Gottfried Fichte called for the protection of superior German Volksgeist (national spirit) from French influence during occupation.

2.4 Daily Life

Malthusian Catastrophe

The Agricultural Revolution swelled the population. Europe added nearly 50% more people from 1750 to 1850.
Disease claimed fewer lives. The bubonic plague disappeared in London after the Great Fire of 1666. Edward Jenner developed the smallpox vaccine in 1798.
Thomas Malthus predicted population growth would outstrip agricultural productivity and lead to starvation. High fertility was no longer considered an asset. This prediction led to the first British census in 1801.
David Ricardo's Iron Law of Wages stated that higher worker wages support population increase generating worker surplus which, in turn, leads to lower wages. Therefore, worker income will always be near-subsistence levels.
In his biting satire Modest Proposal (1729), Jonathan Swift suggested poor Irish sell their children as food for the rich.

Consumer Revolution

The first public opera house opened in Venice (1637). The Royal Opera House opened in London (1732). The London Tavern was a popular drinking spot.
Jean-Baptiste Colbert chartered the Saint-Gobain glass mirror factory (1665) nearParis, which crafted the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles.
George Ravenscroft developed lead crystal glassware (1674). The use of forks became widespread, and porcelain dishes and figurines were popularized in Britain in the 1700s and 1800s.
English gentry built neoclassical Palladian estates (Clandon Park, Stourhead) with formal gardens, Greco-Roman temples, and private grottos.
German Ludwig von Siegen developed a mezzotint printmaking process popularizing art print collections.
The Marquis de Sade was a sexual libertine whose Philosophy in the Bedroom (1795) created a scandalous reputation for ladies' boudoir.

18th-Century Social Structure

Social classes were divided into estates: Clergy, Nobility, Commoners.
British ranking as of Act of Union (1707): Royal → Noble (Duke, Marquis, Earl, Viscount, Baron) → Gentry (Knight, Esquire, Gentleman) → Yeoman (burgher, landowning commoner) → Husbandman (tenant farmers) → Laborer (wage-earning peasant).
In France, tax-exempt clergy and nobility were 2.5% of the population. Tension brewed between Nobles of the Sword and Nobles of the Robe. Bourgeoisie and peasants accounted for 97.5% of the population. Abbé Sieyès challenged the social order in What is the Third Estate? (1789).

18th-Century Crime and Punishment

Outlaw highwaymen like English Dick Turpin and John "Sixteen-String Jack" Rann, and Slovak Juraj Jánosik haunted travelers.
British "Bloody Code" of law protected property of the moneyed classes. 220 capital crimes carried the death penalty including shoplifting, theft of livestock, "being in the company of Gypsies,7-14." From 1770 to 1830, about 35,000 sentences were handed down, but only 7,000 executions were carried out.
The poor rotted in Debtors' Prisons like The Clink and Fleet Prison, though jailors could be bribed for better treatment.
The British established Georgia and Australia as penal colonies.

18th-Century Family Life

The average lifespan was 45 years. Couples wed in their mid to late 20s. Up to 1/3 of children were conceived by premarital sex typically leading to marriage.
Parents were often indifferent to children. 50% chance women had 6 or more children with 20%-30% rate of infant mortality. Upper-class women hired wet nurses.
Illegitimate births skyrocketed between 1750 and 1850 with rise of industry.
Foundling homes took in 100,000 abandoned children per year. At least 50% of foundling babies died within a year.
More loving attitudes toward children developed by 1800 due to Enlightenment beliefs about human progress. Dolls, checkers, and games were mass-produced.
Mary Wollstonecraft and Olympe de Gouges spoke out on women's rights, including education and marriage laws.

18th-Century Urban Life

Cities were filthy. Letters from London were said to smell "sooty." Streets were dusty in summer and muddy in winter. Open sewers carried human waste, horse manure, and offal of butchered animals.
Horse-drawn hackney coaches and carts clacked on cobblestones. The wealthy were held aloft in sedan chairs. Pedestrians scurried through narrow congested lanes and alleys where goods were peddled.
Political speeches, bare-knuckle boxing, fires, accidents, fights, and executions drew crowds.
English William Hogarth contrasted Beer Street and Gin Lane (1751).
An estimated 63,000 prostitutes worked in London (1/5 of the city's women).
Louis XIV of France created the first modern police for Paris (1667). Thames River Police reduced (1798) theft from the London Docks.
More streets were paved starting c. 1760. Oil lamp street lighting was installed.

Period 3: Vienna to Sarajevo (1815 - 1914)

Interaction of Europe & the World

Latin American nations won independence.
National rivalries inspired acquisition of overseas colonies in Asia, Africa, and the South Pacific.
Imperialism extended Europe's global influence and increased contact with non-European peoples.
Industrial technologies were used to expand empires and increase imperial control.
Imperial colonies provided markets and sources of industrial raw materials.
Imperial expansion was justified by beliefs in European cultural and racial superiority and Social Darwinism.
Imperialism provoked strong resistance in India, China, and Africa.

Poverty and Prosperity

Britain industrialized first and was dominant until the mid-1800s. Belgium, France, Germany, and Russia industrialized later. Southern and eastern Europe remained primarily agricultural.
Industrialization produced the factory system, led to rapid urban growth, and increased consumerism.
Conservatism, liberalism, and socialism developed opposing ideologies toward realists critiquing industrial life. Labor unions and socialist parties social inequality.
Labor unions and socialist parties sought improved working and living conditions.
Victorian values dominated middle class culture and family life.
Standards of living rose and cities modernized during the Second Industrial Revolution, but prosperity was uneven.

Objective Knowledge and Subjective Visions

Conservatism, liberalism, and socialism offered different approaches toward social order and social problems.
Romanticism emphasized irrationality and emotion.
Imperial encounters with non-Europeans and the rapid pace of technological change altered. and expressive.
Scientific realism and faith in progress was embraced but new discoveries and theories led to a loss of confidence in the objectivity of knowledge.

Stats and Other Institutions of Power

The Congress of Vienna reestablished conservative order.
Liberal revolutions were fought to expand constitutionalism.
Mass political movements sought reform.
States encouraged and regulated industrialization and urbanization
Nationalism united Germany and Italy, threatened multinational empires, and inspired overseas imperialism.
A balance of power maintained relative peace for nearly a century.
Industrialization of warfare increased centralized state power.
Imperial rivalries influenced militarism
German unification and industrialization upset the balance of power.

Individual and Society

Industrialization produced intensified dass conflict.
The rise of the industrial bourgeoisie challenged traditional aristocratic social
Mass political movements led to protective legislation to reduce the worst
horrors of industrialization
Liberals, radicals, and suffragettes worked to expand suffrage.
Anarchists sought abolition of government.
Feminists challenged the middle class cult of domesticity,
Marxism explained social relations.
Social Darwinism and scientific racism sought to explain European global supremacy.
Anti-Semitism shifted from religious to racial in nature.
Serfdom persisted in Russia until 1861.

3.1 Industrialization

British Production

Coal and Iron: Thomas Newcommen invented the steam engine to pump water from coal mines (1702). Abraham Darby used coke to improve smelting to make pig iron. Henry Cort produced wrought iron through the puddling process (1783).
Textiles: John Kay's flying shuttle (1732), James Hargreaves's spinning jenny (1764), and Richard Arkwright's water frame (1769) increased speed and efficiency.
Factory system: James Watt's engine (1769) freed factories from river-powered water wheels making steam-powered machinery practical. Shoes, furniture, munitions, paper, and printing were mechanized.
Early 1800s: Britain was the "workshop of the world" producing 2/3 of global coal, 1/2 of global iron and cloth, and 1/5 of all global goods. The United States and Germany surpassed British production after 1870.

British Transportation

Canals: Transportation costs fell sharply as canals connected the interior to the Atlantic via England's navigable rivers. Bridgewater Canal (1761) brought coal from the Pennine Mountains to Manchester, fueling its growth as the world's
Rail: In 1830, George and Robert Stephenson linked Manchester to Port of Liverpool with The Rocket, a steam locomotive capable of traveling 16 mph. Parliament, the Bank of England, and financiers like "Railway King" George Hudson invested in over 6,000 miles of railroad construction during Railway Mania, which peaked in 1846.
Steamship: American Robert Fulton introduced the commercial river steamboat (1807). Isambard Kingdom Brunel's SS Great Western was the first steamship to cross the Atlantic Ocean (1838).

British Capital

Industrialization began in Britain due to available capital, population growth, coal and iron deposits, navigable rivers, and ports.
Entrepreneurs raised capital, built factories, purchased machines, managed labor, trained supervisors, acquired raw materials, located markets, and oversaw transactions.
The British gold standard (1821) eased foreign currency exchange. London was the center of international finance and global shipping and the home to insurance giant Lloyd's of London and many international corporate headquarters.
Crystal Palace in Hyde Park, London, housed the Great Exhibition of 1851, the first great world's fair. It was championed by Prince Albert. 13,000 exhibits showcased British and foreign industry and culture to six million visitors.

Spread of Industrialization

The Napoleonic Wars delayed Continental industrialization. Britain also safeguarded its lead by making travel abroad by skilled artisans and mechanics and export of textile machinery illegal.
1799: Despite the ban, William Cockerill and son took British textile machines to Belgium. Also a center of coal and iron production, Belgium became the world's second industrial country.
1809: Prussian Fritz Harkort spread industry to the German Ruhr valley.
1813: American Francis Cabot Lowell memorized and copied designs of British textile machinery for factories in Massachusetts, USA.
1830: Belgian industrialization gained steam after winning independence from the Netherlands. Belgium created the limited liability corporation to spur capital investment by reducing investors' financial risk.

French Industrialization

French industrialization was slow prior to the end of the Napoleonic Wars.
Limited coal and iron deposits were located far from population centers. Less-advanced banking practices required large transactions to be conducted primarily in coin and made capital investment difficult. A strong agricultural tradition made French landowners reluctant to build railroads on family-owned farmlands. French artisans valued quality over quantity of goods produced.
1830-1848: Industrialization increased after the July Revolution. Louis-Philippe enjoyed bourgeois support and encouraged development through high protective tariffs, low business taxes, reform of investment laws, and railroad, canal, and bridge construction.
Labor laws favored factory owners. Strikes were illegal until 1864.

German Industrialization

Early 1800s: Small German states faced severe trade restrictions caused by tolls and custom barriers at political borders.
Friedrich List urged Zollverein customs union (1834) and railroad construction to prevent British economic domination of Germany. List's economic nationalism laid the foundation for German unification achieved by Bismarck's Prussia in 1870.
The unified German Empire industrialized rapidly surpassing France by 1880 and becoming the dominant European industrial power by 1900. Industry concentrated in western Ruhr and Rhine valleys, while the east remained largely agricultural.
Alfred Krupp showcased a high-quality steel cannon at the 1851 Great Exhibition triggering an international artillery arms race. Krupp Steel was the largest German employer by 1887.

Russian Industrialization

Autocratic, feudal, and Orthodox institutions delayed development.
Russia's vastness was a challenge. Coal and iron were found far from cities. It took 75 days to travel the length of the canals linking St. Petersburg to the Volga River. Russia had only 3,000 miles of roads when rail linked Moscow and St. Petersburg (1851).
Defeat in Crimean War (1853-1856) led Alexander I| to modernize. Fewer than 1% of 57 million population were industrial workers at time of serf emancipation (1861)
1890s: Rapid industrialization occurred after Finance Minister Sergei Witte moved Russia to the gold standard and sought French and British investment.
Rail grew from 1,250 miles in 1860 to 35,000 miles in 1900, including the 5,700+ mile long Trans-Siberian Railway.
By 1900, Russia was second in global petroleum production and fourth in steel production.

Eastern European Industrial Lag

Modernization quickened after the Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary formed (1867) with disparity between urban and rural areas.
Manufacturing concentrated in Vienna and Prague helping Austria maintain dominance in the Austro-Hungarian Empire despite ethnic Germans being only 1/4 of the population.
Eastern agriculture made Hungary a major food exporter, and Budapest thrived as a trade center.
Almost 50% of Austria-Hungary's exports went to and nearly 40% of imports came from Germany.

Southern European Industrial Lag

Some development came to Catalonia in northeast Spain, but lack of navigable rivers and railroads and restrictive laws limited industrialization elsewhere.
Only the rich northern regions of Italy saw industrial growth; southern Italy and Sicily remained agrarian regions dominated by landed elites.

The Second Industrial Revolution: Land Transportation

British engineer Thomas Hancock and American inventor Charles Goodyear vulcanized rubber tires (1844).
Nikolaus Otto's gasoline-fueled internal combustion engine (1868) drove Carl Benz's and Gottlieb Daimler's automobiles (1880s)
1880s: Steam- and electric-powered street and cable cars were common in cities.
Rudolf Diesel's engine (1893) powered electric and water plants, mining and drilling equipment, factories, and oil pipelines in addition to trucks, ships, and boats.
The London Underground (1863) and Paris Métro (1900) subways and the Mt. Cenis (1873) and Simplon (1906) tunnels in the Alps drove through the earth.

The Second Industrial Revolution: Sea Transportation

Steel plates (1858) spurred rapid shipbuilding improvements climaxing in the tragic voyage of 5S Titanic (1913).
The Suez (1869), Kiel (1895), and Panama (1914) canals carved new sea routes.
1870s: Refrigerated railcars and ships carried meat and fruit long-distance, even from Australia to Britain.
Experimental submarines appeared in the 1860s and first saw combat during the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905).
Battleship HMS Dreadnought (1906) launched a naval arms race between Britain and Imperial Germany.

The Second Industrial Revolution: Air Transportation

French hot-air balloons were launched in 1783. Henri Giffard took a 15-mile flight (1852) in a dirigible driven by steam engine.
British George Cayley studied physical principles of heavier-than-air flight and designed the first glider to carry a human aloft (c. 1849).
German Ferdinand von Zeppelin's airship conquered the sky (1900). Zeppelins flew 1,588 commercial flights by World War I.
Americans Orville and Wilbur Wright flew a plane (1903).

The Second Industrial Revolution: Newspapers

The London Times was able to print 1,100 newspaper copies per hour by 1814.
The penny press reduced costs and made news accessible to the masses. British Charles Knight's Penny Magazine circulated 200,000 copies in the first year (1832).
British newspaper circulation grew over 300% from 1836 to 1854.
Newspapers moved from elitist to popular tones and adopted political biases.
Pall Mall Gazette editor William Thomas Stead pioneered investigative and tabloid journalism and pressured lawmakers to enact reform legislation by swaying public opinion.

The Second Industrial Revolution: High-speed Communication

Samuel Morse's telegraph (1844) enabled high-speed long-distance communication. Undersea telegraph cables tethered Britain to France (1850) and Ireland to Canada (1858).
Scotsman Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone (1876).
The French Lumière brothers thrilled audiences with silent film (1895).
Italian Guglielmo Marconi transmitted the first transatlantic radio message (1901)

The Second Industrial Revolution: Research and Development

Corporate research and development labs and technical university education emphasized chemistry and engineering.
Germany spent as much on education as on the military.
U.S. patents tripled, and German patents quadrupled from 1875 to 1905.

The Second Industrial Revolution: Steel

British Henry Bessemer mass-produced steel in a blast furnace (1856).
American William Le Baron Jenney built the first steel skyscraper (1884). French Gustav Eiffel used wrought iron for the Eiffel Tower (1889).
By 1914, the United States produced ~40% of global steel, more than Germany, Britain, and France combined.

The Second Industrial Revolution: Electricity

Alessandro Volta made the battery (1800).
British Michael Faraday built a generator (1831) improved by German electrical engineer Werner von Siemens.
British power plants came two years after Edison's lightbulb (1879).
Refrigerators, fans, and vacuum cleaners were in affluent homes by 1900.

The Second Industrial Revolution: Chemistry

John Dalton's atomic theory (1805) led to Dmitri Mendeleev's periodic table and Alfred Nobel's dynamite in 1869.
German chemists made soaps, pharmaceuticals, chlorine, sulfuric acid, synthetic dyes, artificial flavors, and fertilizers.
Photography and silent films used photosensitive chemicals on celluloid.
Rayon, a synthetic fabric, was commercially marketed in 1905.

The Second Industrial Revolution: Biology

William Buckland's 1824 article on dinosaurs and Charles Lyell's 1830 estimate of Earth's age of at least 2 billion years challenged biblical Genesis.
Germans discovered Neanderthal remains (1856).
Charles Darwin proposed natural selection in Origin of Species (1859).
Louis Pasteur's germ theory (1870) led to safe milk and packaged foods, Joseph Lister's surgical antiseptics, and Robert Koch's 1905 Nobel Prize for isolating tuberculosis bacillus.

3.2 Industrial Life

Industrial Era Social Class Relations: Landed Aristocracy

Landed aristocrats were 3/4 of British millionaires in 1850. Eclipsed by captains of industry, they were only 1/4 of British millionaires in 1914, In 1900, 5% of the population controlled 1/3 of British wealth.
Some aristocrats invested in mining, rail, utilities, bonds, and business helping Britain's early industrial lead.
Old and new money merged. American heiress Consuelo Vanderbilt married the Duke of Marlborough, securing social status for the Vanderbilt family in New York high society of the Gilded Age while Marlborough gained a fortune in railroad stock.
Some despised the new rich as vulgar upstarts. Jewish Albert Ballin, owner-director of Hamburg-America luxury cruise ships, was snubbed by Prussian Junkers despite his welcome at Kaiser Wilhelm Il's court.
Aristocrats believed inferior proletariat degenerates would drag civilization into ruin if left unchecked.

Industrial Era Social Class Relations: Bourgeoisie

The middle class was less than 1/5 of the British population, yet they controlled more than 1/4 of national wealth in 1900. Victorian values of Christian morality, propriety, sobriety, self-discipline, thrift, cleanliness, sexual purity, and fidelity epitomized bourgeois culture.
Industry needed white-collar engineers, accountants, managers, and clerks. Teaching, nursing, and dentistry became respectable professions.
Legally restrained religious minorities found white-collar opportunities like British Quaker families the Barclays and Lloyds found in banking. French Protestants and Jews found similar success.
Conspicuous consumption: 50% of income was spent on food and servants. Employing a cook divided "servant-keeping" and lower middle classes. Victorians popularized Christmas traditions and went on beach holidays and to music halls like the Moulin Rouge in Paris.

Industrial Era Social Class Relations: Proletariat

80% of the European population: skilled and unskilled workers, shopkeepers, artisans, peasants, and sharecroppers. Majority of the population still farmed in 1851. Only 8% in Britain, 25% in Germany, and less than 50% in France farmed in 1900.
William Blake described "satanic" British textile mills. Workers resisted in the Luddite rebellion (1812). Miners faced cave-ins, explosions, tight spaces, and poisonous fumes. Friedrich Engels reported hellish conditions in the Condition of the Working Class (1844) and wrote Communist Manifesto (1848) with Karl Marx.
Conditions improved after 1850. Wages doubled by 1906. In 1870, French workers spent 75% of their income on food but only 60% by 1900. Shorter hours gave time for children and recreation. Nonetheless, unions and socialist parties grew, and rhetoric heated.

19th-Century Business Culture

Precision tools allowed interchangeable parts and assembly line production first of small arms and clocks and later of sewing machines, typewriters, bicycles, and automobiles.
Enthusiasm for free trade in the 1860s was short-lived. Increased competition led to protective tariffs in the 1870s.
1890s: Large-scale corporate capitalism and scientific management (Taylorism) arose. German banks formed cartels to eliminate market anarchy and protect investments by fixing prices and production quotas in fertilizer, coal, steel, and chemicals.
World trade increased 25-fold from 1800 to 1913. Europe invested $40 billion abroad. 3/4 went to other European states, the United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and Latin America. Only 1/4 went to colonies in Asia and Africa.

Population Growth

The birth rate fell after 1790 due to birth control practices. Rubber condoms were introduced (1840s). Aletta Jacob opened a birth control clinic in Amsterdam (1882). English mothers averaged six children in 1860 but just two or three by 1920.
1820s-1830s: Urban populations grew by 70% per decade as peasants sought work in the cities.
The European population grew from 266 million in 1850 to 460 million in 1910 due to a falling death rate. Increased food supply boosted immunity. More children reached adulthood. People lived longer. Viral outbreaks fell, vaccinations checked smallpox, and war claimed fewer victims from 1815 to 1914.
Rural conditions declined as landless peasant congestion grew-especially in France, Spain, Germany, Norway, Sweden, and Ireland.

Public Health

1842: Edwin Chadwick reported on Manchester's filth.
1846: A major cholera outbreak occurred in Britain.
1848: Britain's first public health law was enacted.
1847-1848: Typhus outbreak in Germany. Rudolf Virchow sought reform.
1854: Miasmatic theory of disease replaced by Louis Pasteur's germ theory. 1860s-1870s: Water and sewage systems were built. Frankfurt boasted that its sewers flushed waste "from the toilet to the river in half an hour."
1871-1903: There were 900,000 prostitutes in Paris, many with venereal disease.
1875: British Public Health Act mandated running water in new housing.
Regular hot baths and showers followed.
1880s-1890s: German doctors introduced new vaccines.
1910: The urban death rate was the same as or less than the rural death rate.
1914: 80% of Britons, 60% of Germans, 45% of French, and 30% of eastern Europeans were living in urban areas.

Urban Planning

1853-1870: Napoleon Ill hired Georges Haussmann to redesign Paris. Razing old slums for broad boulevards opened traffic, improved housing, created parks and open spaces, and made assembling revolutionary barricades difficult.Aqueducts doubled the amount of available fresh water. Sewers carried filth away. Paris was beautified; the Second Empire was glorified.
Cities like Cologne imitated. Vienna demolished city walls and paved Ringstrasse, a broad boulevard encircling town center.
1870s: Public transit introduced via horse-drawn streetcars. Electrified streetcars ferried 6.7 billion passengers/ year by 1910.
Church construction did not keep pace with urban growth. Working classes resented Catholic and Protestant organizations as conservative status quo institutions. Attendance dropped sharply.

Cult of Domesticity

By 1850, romantic love became the main cause to wed, not finances.
Victorian middle class women protected femininity and avoided factory and office work. Married women labored only in poor families.
Women's place was managing the home, budgeting, raising the children, and providing moral guidance. Shopping for food and goods was conducted almost entirely by foot requiring frequent trips out.
Gustave Droz's Monsieur, Madame et Bébé (1866) celebrated marriage and emphasized affection and eroticism. French marriage manuals held women had "right to orgasm."
1882: English married women gained full property rights.
My Secret Life (1888) revealed Victorian gentlemen's sexist beliefs and sexual appetites. Wives are thought of in terms of family, money, and social status. Poor girls were used for debauchery.

Impact of Industrialization on Women and Children

1830: 1/2 of the British population was under 20. Women and children were 2/3 of the workforce. Children were paid 1/3 or less of man's wage.
1833: The Factory Act reduced child labor hours but broke up family units working together. Inspectors could issue fines.
Factories and mines offered girls and boys the chance to mix free of family supervision. Work gender division arose to limit sexuality.
Women in mines dressed scantily because of the heat. Middle class inspectors were scandalized. The Mines Act of 1842 prohibited women and boys under 10 from working underground.
1847: The Ten Hours Act shortened workday for teens and women.
White-collar work offered women employment as clerks, typists, secretaries, telephone operators, teachers, nurses, and postal service workers.

Development of Popular Leisure

1759-1852: The British Museum, London; Uffizi, Florence; Louvre, Paris; Prado, Madrid; and Hermitage, St. Petersburg, were opened to the public.
Harrods in London (1834), Bainbridge's in Newcastle (1838), and Le Bon Marché in Paris (1838) among first department stores.
1835: The Cruelty to Animals Act forbade blood sports like bull baiting,bear baiting, cockfighting, and dogfighting in Britain.
1841: Thomas Cook began arranging global travel.
1843: Iron merchant Richard Yates funded the first public park as open space in industrial Liverpool, England.
1849: First working class music hall opened in London. Over 500 by the 1880s. Dance halls were all the rage by 1900.
1863: The working class enjoyed beach holidays at Blackpool, Brighton.
1908: British Robert Baden-Powell's Boy Scouts instilled good moral character and patriotism.

Amateur and Professional Sports

Bicycles appeared in the 1810s, became popular in the 1860s, and were a craze in 1890s.
Students at Rugby drafted football rules (1845) allowing use of hands.
Eton students created a rival game (1849) restricting hands.
Universal soccer rules were adopted by the Football Association (1863). The Rugby Football Union (1871) followed. 100,000 spectators watched the British Soccer Cup Final in 1901.
1860: First British Open golf tournament.
1861: England first played cricket against Australia.
1867: Queensberry Rules of boxing were adopted.
1877: The first Wimbledon tennis tournament was held.
1888: The first professional football team competed. Teams of factory workers eventually became Arsenal, West Ham, and Manchester United.

The Rising Standard of Living: La Belle Époque

The working class standard of living only rose in the late 1800s. Meat consumption declined between 1780 and 1840, and tea, sugar, and coffee remained semiluxuries. Adulterated food-alum added to bread, milk diluted, lead substituted for pepper-led to the British Food and Drug Act (1875).
Charles Dickens (Oliver Twist, 1837), George Sand (Consuelo, 1842), Charlotte Bronte Jane Eyre, 1847), and Émile Zola (Germinal, 1885) critiqued poor social conditions.
1850-1900: Wages increased 2/3 in Britain and 1/3 in Germany, and consumer prices dropped 6.5%. Consumers could purchase sewing machines, clocks, and electric lights. Bread and wine consumption increased 50%, beer 100%, spirits 300%, and sugar and coffee 400%.
The French called the late 19th to early 20th century La Belle Époque (Beautiful Era).

The Rising Standard of Living: Labor-saving Devices

French Nicolas Appert preserved food in glass bottles (1810) for Napoleon. British Bryan Donkin's tin canning factory (1813) supplied the Royal Navy. Canned food was a middle class status symbol until the can opener was invented (1855). Milk pasteurization began in the 1900s.
1850s: Sewing machines reduced time to make man's dress shirt from 14 hours to 1 hour allowing much larger wardrobes.
Hot water heaters (1868) and electric appliances like irons (1882), ovens (1891), toasters (1893), vacuums (1901), washing machines (1904), refrigerators (1911), and dishwashers (1913) saved labor.

The Rising Standard of Living: Advertising

Early 1800s: Ads ran in London newspapers but few manufacturers believed advertising necessary and generally held it in contempt.
1825: James Morrison established the fake British College of Health to advertise the Vegetable Universal Pill, a quack panacea.
1861: Textile merchant Pryce Pryce-Jones began a mail order catalog exploiting the new British national railway system for shipping.
1880s: Pictorial ads appeared in British illustrated magazines. "Father of Advertising" Thomas Barratt promoted Pears' Soap.
1890s: Art Nouveau ad posters by Jules Chéret, Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec, and Alphonse Mucha were popular in Italy, France, and Germany.

Poverty Amidst Plenty: Irish Potato Famine

Irish Catholics were stripped of land ownership beginning in the mid-1600s. By the 1800s most lived in dire poverty under absentee British landlords.
1781-1845: Irish population doubled to 8 million due to potato farming. 1-2 acres were sufficient to feed a family.
1845-1851: Fungal blight destroyed potato crops. 1 million died from starvation and disease. 2 million emigrated to Britain, the United States, Canada, and Australia. Ireland is the only European nation with a declining population.
"Hungry '40s": 100,000 also starved from blight in Prussia, Belgium, and France.
British landlords continued to export food from Irish estates under military guard-grain, livestock, ham, peas, beans, onions, and butter. Famine further tainted British-Irish relations.
1858: Irish Republican Brotherhood ("Fenians") began their campaign for Irish independence.

Poverty Amidst Plenty: Emigration

Crop failures, failed revolutions, lack of land for growing population, and availability of industrial jobs and land in the United States (1862 Homestead Act) drove emigration.
1820-1920: 60 million Europeans left-71% to North America, 21% to Latin America, and 7% to Australia. About half went to the United States including 5.5 million Germans, 4.4 million Irish, 4.2 million Italians, and 3,7 million Austro-Hungarians.
1/3 of the Norwegian and 1/4 of the Swedish populations emigrated.
1880: Italian, Greek, Hungarian, Polish, Slavic, and Jewish emigration was on the rise. The assassination of Tsar Alexander Il of Russia (1881) triggered Jewish pogroms. 40% of Russian emigrants were Jews.
1910: Immigrants were 14.7% of the U.S. population.

The Political Spectrum

In French Revolutionary assemblies, the nobility sat to the speaker's right and the commoners to the left establishing Left-Right political divide.
Right-wing ideologies (autocracy, conservatism) aligned with royal, aristocratic, and Church interests.
Left-wing ideologies (liberalism, radicalism) advocated republicanism, secularism, and civil liberties. The middle classes supported free-market laissez-faire economic policies.
Mid-1800s to early 1900s: Economic dominance of landed aristocracy was eclipsed by captains of industry. Laissez-faire economics shifted to the political right as capitalism became the new status quo. Ideologies for equitable distribution of wealth (socialism, communism) emerged in the left wing as the working classes grew.
Anarchism opposed all forms of state control.

Political Ideologies: Conservatism

Conservatives upheld Ancien Régime royal, aristocratic and Church power, and tradition and sought controlled, slow social change. Reactionaries wanted to reverse change and restore the old order.
British Edmund Burke denounced French Revolutionary reforms in his Reflections (1790). He defended social hierarchy and property rights.
French-Italian Joseph de Maistre's Considerations on France (1797) rebuked Enlightenment rationalism and deism. He defended divine right and papal authority.
French François-René de Chateaubriand sought Catholic revival in the Genius of Christianity (1802).
Austrian Klemens von Metternich organized the Congress of Vienna and called for intervention to crush liberal revolutions to maintain legitimate monarchies.

Political Ideologies: Classical Liberalism

Classical liberalism believed in popular sovereignty, constitutional limits to state power, laissez-faire economics, and guaranteed individual rights including freedom of speech, press, religion.
Many liberals wanted to limit suffrage to the wealthy by property qualifications and feared democratic mob rule.
Utilitarianism was promoted by Jeremy Bentham's Principles of Morals and Legislation (1789), which sought the greatest good for the greatest number.
1815-1846: British Corn Laws imposed tariffs on grain imports. Elevated farm prices benefited landed aristocrats. The Anti-Corn Law League lobbied for repeal and free trade.
John Stuart Mill's On Liberty (1859) argued for personal freedoms and limits to state power. Individuals are not accountable to society unless actions are harmful to others.

Political Ideologies: Social Liberalism

British New Liberals T.H. Green, L.T. Hobhouse, and J.A. Hobson wanted strong state intervention to tackle poverty, education, health, and social ills.
Britain, 1905-1922: Liberal Prime Ministers Henry Campbell-Bannerman, H.H. Asquith, and David Lloyd George founded the welfare state. The People's Budget raised taxes on income, inheritance, and land to fund social programs: free school meals, affordable housing, unemployment insurance, and old age pensions. Unions were strengthened, and suffrage was expanded to poor men and women over age 30.
Germany: Friedrich Neumann established the short-lived National-Social Association (1896) to merge liberalism and socialism. He worked for social welfare, the right to strike, and industry profit-sharing.
France: Sociologist Émile Durkheim did not want the welfare state but encouraged greater social mobility.

Political Ideologies: Radicalism

British middle class radicals were against the aristocracy. They wanted expanded suffrage, free trade, the abolition of titles, and the redistribution of property.
Scottish Radical War (1820) opposed conservative suppression of Luddites, the Corn Laws, the Peterloo Massacre, and the Six Acts.
The 1832 Reform Act enfranchised the middle class. The working class Chartist movement (1836) unsuccessfully sought universal male suffrage. The Anti-Corn Law League fought grain tariffs to lower food costs.
John Stuart Mill's Subjection of Women (1869) argued for female emancipation, education, and suffrage.
Radical trade unionists formed the core of the British Labour Party.
The French anticlerical peasant and bourgeois Radical-Socialist Party led the Third Republic and supported the Jules Ferry secular state education laws, income tax, and workers' pensions.

Political Ideologies: Utopian Socialism

Utopian Socialists founded experimental communities based on cooperation, not competition.
French Count Henri de Saint-Simon wanted a planned economy managed by "doers" (scientists, industrialists). He wanted war, poverty, and "parasites" (traditional elite) to disappear and a society of true equality to emerge based on "union of men engaged in useful work."
French Charles Fourier proposed agricultural collectives of 1600 people. Étienne Cabet founded worker communes in the United States.
French Louis Blanc wanted state-financed, worker-controlled social workshops and advocated worker revolution. An early leader of the 1848 French Revolution, he was exiled to England after June Days.
British Robert Owen transformed the New Lanark, Scotland, textile mill into a successful model industrial community. He later founded the failed communal village at New Harmony, Indiana.

Political Ideologies: Marxist Socialism, or Communism

Marxist Socialism called for international proletariat revolution vs. bourgeoisie.
Friedrich Engels reported on the Working Class in England (1844).
Karl Marx and Engels collaborated on Communist Manifesto (1848) urging "Workers of the world, unite!" Das Kapital (1867-1883) elaborated Marxist theory. It was influenced by the Hegelian dialectic.
First (1864) and Second (1889) Internationals discussed socialist theories and advanced class struggle.
Communards established the short-lived Paris Commune (1871).
August Bebel founded the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) after Anti-Socialist Laws were lifted in 1890.
Rosa Luxemburg and Clara Zetkin led the Spartacus League which later became the German Communist Party (KPD).

Political Ideologies: Anarchism

Anarchism opposed state control and sought society without government.
French Pierre Joseph Proudhon condemned concentrated wealth in What Is Property? (1840). He believed that planned societies were not feasible and called for people to act ethically of their own free will making government unnecessary.
Russian Mikhail Bakunin rejected all authorities and socioeconomic inequality. He said Marxists "would be worse than the Tsar." He proposed syndicalism-trade union ownership and management of industry free of central state planning. Pyotr Kropotkin had a similar proposal.
Propaganda of the deed-uncoordinated individual attacks-led to assassinations of seven heads of state and frequent bombings.
French Georges Sorel defended the use of violence to achieve change.

Nationalism: Ethnic States

Nationalism encouraged the formation of ethnic political nation-states through unification of disparate people (Germans, Italians, Slavs) and revolution in multiethnic empires (Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, Russian).
It celebrated common ethnic ancestry, language, faith, and culture and based nationality and citizenship by jus sanguinis (law of blood).
Political borders should match ethnic mother/father/homeland.
German G.W. Friedrich Hegel proclaimed nationalism matched the Zeitgeist (spirit of the age) binding societies as traditional feudal and religious social institutions decayed.

Nationalism: Unifying

Germany: J.G. Herder celebrated German language, patriotism. J.G. Fichte recognized German Volksgeist (national spirit). The Grimm Brothers studied German folk culture. Nationalistic Burschenschaften (university student groups) banned by Metternich's Carlsbad Decrees (1819).
Italy: Carbonari member Giuseppe Mazzini founded liberal Young Italy (1831) to expel Austrians and establish an Italian republic. He inspired copycats for Young Germany, Young Poland, Young Turks, and Young Europe.
Balkans: Pan-Slavists wanted to unite all Slavs. They were most active among Southern Slavs ruled by Austrian and Ottoman Empires.

Nationalism: Liberating

Greece, 1821-1830: Romantic Lord Byron led Britain, France, and Russia to support the Greek War of Independence from the Turks. Great Powers picked a German prince to be Greek King Otto (1832).
Belgium, 1830: The Dutch United Provinces and the Austrian Netherlands were united in 1815 to be a strong anti-French buffer state. French-speaking Catholic southerners won independence from the Dutch in the Belgian Revolution.
Poland, 1830-1831: The Polish uprising against the Russian Empire was crushed.
Ireland, 1800-1922: Daniel O'Connell sought repeal of the Act of Union (1800) binding Ireland to Britain. Charles Stewart Parnell fought for Irish Home Rule. Self-government won in 1914 but was postponed in World War I.
Spain, 1830s-1880s: The Carlists Wars for the Spanish throne sparked the Basque independence movement. Renaixença fueled Catalan nationalism.

19th-Century Urban Reforms: Infrastructure

Sanitation: Crystal Palace (1851) visitors could "spend a penny" to use a public toilet. Thomas Crapper popularized the flush toilet. Trash was collected and incinerated after the British Public Health Act 1875.
Street Lighting: Gas (London, 1807) and then kerosene (Ukraine, 1853) were used to light the streets. Electric arc lamps showcased at the Paris Exposition (1881).
Housing: Octavia Hill and Charles Booth fought poverty. British factory owners built company towns-New Lanark and Saltaire. Local governments closed slums (1885) and built housing estates (1890). "Homes fit for heroes" campaign led to the British Housing Act (1919).
Transportation: Horse-drawn public rail (1806) gave way to steam (1825). Horse-drawn buses (1825) were later driven by steam (1831), electric trolley(1882), and combustion motors (1895).

19th-Century Urban Reforms: Public Services

Postal Service: Rowland Hill's Uniform Penny Post delivered letters anywhere in the United Kingdom regardless of distance.
Justice System: Robert Peel established the London Metropolitan Police, or "Bobbies" (1829). Parole was granted for juvenile (France, 1850) and adult (Portugal, 1861) offenders. Prison sentences were suspended for first-time offenders (Belgium, 1888).
Public Parks: Princes Park, Liverpool, UK (1842), was funded privately. Peel Park, Manchester, Britain (1846), was funded publicly. At City Park, Budapest, Vajdahunyad Castle (1896) opened to celebrate Hungary's 1,000th anniversary, and visitors soaked at Széchenyi Bath (1913). Sweden established the first European national park (1909).

Public Education

Sunday Schools were set up by Robert Raikes in the 1780s to teach working class children, which 1.2 million attended by 1831.
Austria (1869), Britain (1880), France (1882), and most other western states had compulsory elementary education by 1900.
Expanded suffrage required literate voters. French Jules Ferry Laws sought to supplant Catholicism with secular education.
London Evening News (1871) and Daily Mail (1896) appealed to reading masses with news of lurid crimes, gossip, and sports.
Conservatives supported education to instill patriotism, have better military recruits, and increase social discipline. Conscription and state-run schools forced provincial peasants to adopt national identities.
Adult illiteracy was almost eliminated in western Europe by 1900, but literacy was still at 72%-79% in Russia, Serbia, Romania, and Bulgaria.

Mass Politics

The British Reform Acts of 1832, 1867, and 1884 expanded suffrage from 10% of adult males to a majority. The Act of 1918 enfranchised all men over 21 and all women over 30. Parliamentary seats were reapportioned to eliminate "rotten" boroughs and increase the representation of industrial cities.
Mid-1800s Britain: Conservatives (evolved from Tories) were led by Benjamin Disraeli. Liberals (evolved from Whigs) were led by William Gladstone. The parties competed for voter loyalty by passing popular reform. Keir Hardie founded the Labour Party (1900).
France, 1879-1914: Third Republic rocked by scandals. Conservative monarchists hoped to install a dictator in the Boulanger Affair (1886-1889). The Panama Canal Affair (1892) exposed corruption. The Dreyfus Affair (1894-1906) revealed deep left-right political divisions.

Labor Unions and Movements

Unions were legalized in Britain (1872), France (1884), and Germany (1897).
General strikes hit Britain (1842), Belgium (1894), and Russia (1905).
Russian Social Democratic Party (1898) was an illegal revolutionary socialist party. Vladimir Lenin's What Is to Be Done? (1902) called for disciplined, centralized party activists to be the "vanguard of the proletariat." His radical Bolshevik branch split from the more moderate rival Mensheviks.
British union leader Keir Hardie founded the Labour Party (1900), which grew to be the second-largest party by 1922. It was supported by the intellectual Fabian Society, which included H.G. Wells (Time Machine, 1895) and George Bernard Shaw (Pygmalion, 1912).
The Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) was the largest German party by 1912. Rosa Luxembourg called for Mass Strike (1906).

Women’s Rights and Suffrage

Flora Tristan's Workers' Union (1843) called for working class solidarity and women's liberation.
Barbara Bodichon founded English Women's Journal (1858), opened a British women's college (1869), and inspired the Married Women's Property Act (1882)-
Millicent Fawcett founded the peaceful British National Union of Women's Suffrage Societies (1897).
Emmeline, Christabel, and Sylvia Pankhurst led militant British Women's Social and Political Union (1903) known for hunger strikes, breaking windows, and burning empty buildings.
Attention-seeking suffragette Emily Davison was trampled to death after leaping in front of King George V's horse at Epsom Derby (1913).

The Deserving Poor

Irish John Edgar began a temperance movement (1829) against spirits. Joseph Livesey's teetotalism (1833) also cut out beer and wine.
The British New Poor Law (1834) offered relief to able-bodied persons through employment in harsh workhouses.
British Jabez Tunnicliff established Bank of Hope (1847) to teach working class children to stay sober. William and Catherine Booth founded the Salvation Ari (1864) emphasizing alcohol abstinence and ministry to the working class:
Josephine Butler fought child prostitution. She led the fight to raise consent from 13 to 16 and campaigned to repeal the Contagious Diseases Acts (1864-1869), which forced suspected prostitutes to submit to genital examinations.

German Social Reforms

German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck created the first welfare state to undercut political support for Socialists and stimulate growth by giving workers security to stem the flow of German emigrants to the United States.
Bismarck feared regulation of workplace safety, work hours, and child labor would reduce employment and hurt the German economy.
The Sickness Insurance Law (1883) provided health insurance.
The Accident Insurance Law (1884) paid for medical treatment and provided 2/3 of wages if fully disabled.
The Old Age Pension Law (1889) provided annuity for workers over 70.

3.4 International Order

The Concert of Europe

Austrian Klemens von Metternich made a system at Congress of Vienna to preserve legitimate monarchies, peace, and the balance of power.
Prussia, Austria, and Russia formed the Holy Alliance to suppress liberalism and secularism. The addition of Britain made the Quadruple Alliance, and the addition of France made the Concert of Europe.
Any Concert member could call a meeting during crises. Concert powers intervened to suppress liberal revolutions in Italy and Spain.
The system weakened after the death of Tsar Alexander I (1825) and the French July Revolution (1830). It collapsed with the Crimean War (1853-1856) and was replaced by the Alliance Systems after the Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871).

Post-1815 Liberal Revolution

Britain, 1819: The cavalry charged liberal protesters in Manchester during the Peterloo Massacre.
Italy, 1820: Liberal Carbonari fought to establish constitutional monarchies in Naples and Sardinia. The secret society was suppressed by the Holy Alliance.
Spain, 1820: Ferdinand VII was forced to accept a liberal constitution. French intervention restored his absolute monarchy.
Portugal, 1820: The king relocated his court to Brazil during the Napoleonic Wars. Peaceful protests returned the monarchy to Portugal under a new constitution. Brazil was granted independence in 1825.
Russia, 1825: Military officers exposed to liberal ideas in France led the failed Decembrist Revolt against Tsar Nicholas I.

July Revolution of 1830

Conservative Charles X (r. 1824-1830) gained the throne by hereditary right as"King of France." He violated religious freedom under the constitutional Charter of 1814 by pandering to the Catholic Church.
July 1830: Charles X issued the Saint-Cloud Ordinances suspending the free press, dissolving the lower legislative house, and stripping the bourgeoisie of suffrage. After Three Glorious Days of revolt, he abdicated.
Louis-Philippe (r. 1830-1848) led center-right Orléanist July Monarchy as "King of the French" implying rule by popular sovereignty. He was supported by affluent bourgeoisie and called the "Citizen King." His popularity faded as working class conditions deteriorated sparking the February 1848 Revolution.
The French July Revolution inspired the 1830 revolts in Belgium and Poland.

1848 Revolutions: Springtime of Nations

1846-1848: Famine increased grain prices during the "Hungry '40s." Reduced consumer spending led to industrial job losses. Economic misery and long-term repression sparked the 1848 revolutions during the "Springtime of Nations."
Middle and working classes sought elimination of feudal institutions and establishment of liberal, unified nation-states with republican government, limits to church and state power, universal male suffrage, popular sovereignty, free press, individual rights, national unity, and increased worker control of production.
The revolutions were defeated by reactionary armies. Absolutism was reestablished in Prussia and Austria. The middle class was shocked by socialist agendas and allied with conservatives to strengthen the police and increase censorship.

1848 Revolutions: France

February 1848: The National Guard joined the protest by middle class liberals and workers. Louis-Philippe abdicated.
Alphonse de Lamartine helped establish the Second Republic with universal male suffrage.
Louis Blanc set up "right to work" national workshops for the unemployed funded by land taxes.
Middle classes and the conservative Party of Order teamed to crush workers' revolt during June Days.
December: Louis-Napoleon Bonaparte elected president in national plebiscite.

1848 Revolutions: Italy

Giuseppe Mazzini's Young Italy led nationalist uprising against Austrian and Bourbon rule to establish a unified, democratic Italy.
Attack on the pope drew intervention by French conservatives, and the revolution collapsed.

1848 Revolutions: Austria

March 1848: The Vienna revolt led Metternich to resign. Liberals set up an assembly to draft a constitution.
Hungarians led by Lajos Kossuth demanded home rule, as did Czechs.
The Austrian government abolished peasant feudal dues.
The Austrian army then crushed revolts in Vienna and Prague. 300,000 Russian troops reestablish order in Hungary. Franz Josef (r. 1848-1916) took the throne.

1848 Revolutions: Germany

March 1848: Friedrich Wilhelm IV promised a new Prussian assembly during the revolt in Berlin.
The Frankfurt Assembly drafted a liberal constitution for a unified Germany. Frederick William IV refused the crown because it would limit his authority.
Disappointed German liberals moved to the United States.

Pax Britannica

1815-1914: "The sun never set" on the British Empire. It controlled 10,000,000 square miles and 400 million people-Canada, India, Australia, Africa "from Cape to Cairo," and many islands.
The Industrial Revolution fueled economic growth. Steamships, telegraphs, machine guns, and the Suez Canal linked far-flung colonies.
The Royal Navy protected maritime trade, blocked slave trade, suppressed piracy, and dominated China in the Opium Wars.
Britain played a "Great Game" with Russia for central Asia, but there were no other serious rivals. Britain avoided involvement in European continental affairs.
The rise of imperial Germany, Japan, and the United States reduced British supremacy.

The Crimean War

1853-1856: Russia preyed on the Ottoman Empire, the "Sick Man of Europe." The Turks were supported by Britain and France.
Allied troops led an eight-month siege of Sevastopol, Russian Crimea. Tennyson commemorated it in "Charge of the Light Brigade'' symbolizing the war's mismanagement.
Disease killed about 125,000 men. Nurse Florence Nightingale campaigned for better battlefield medicine.
First military use of telegraph, war photography.
Tsar Alexander II recognized the need for Russian modernization.
Austrian support for the Allies destroyed its good relations with Russia. The weakened Concert System let Germany and Italy unify unopposed.

The Second French Empire and Third Republic

1852: Napoleon III was constitutionally barred from a second presidential term. He led a coup, proclaimed the Second Empire, and censored critics.
Reforms: Public works, railroads, and housing were built; lines of credit were opened; Paris was redeveloped; bread prices were lowered; and labor disputes were mediated. The middle class saw the state as a safeguard against socialism.
The empire expanded into West Africa and Indochina. A French puppet was installed in Mexico during the U.S. Civil War. The Suez Canal was supported.
"Liberal Empire": Civil freedoms were increased in later years.
Franco-Prussian War, 1870-1871: Napoleon III was captured at Sedan and deposed. The Paris Commune was smashed.
1870-1940: The Third Republic survived until Nazi occupation. It was beset by the Boulanger, Panama Canal, and Dreyfus Affairs.

The Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary

Multiethnic: German Austrians were 25% of population; Hungarians, 20%; Slavic minorities (Czechs, Poles, Ukrainians, Serbs, Croatians, others), about 50%; and Italians, 3%. 11 major languages were spoken.
1867-1918: Ausgleich (Compromise) gave Hungary domestic self-rule but shared foreign policy with Austria. Liberal freedoms were adopted. Slavs desired greater autonomy.
1873: Vienna Exhibition showcased industrial development. The ensuing stock market crash was blamed on Jews.
1878: Bosnia-Herzegovina was taken from the weak Ottoman Empire.
1890s-1910s: Georg Schönerer pushed Pan-Germanism. Mayor of Vienna Karl Lueger's Christian Socialism appealed to the lower middle classes and skilled labor. Both were anti-Semitic and influenced Adolf Hitler.

Russian Modernization

Alexander II (r. 1855-1881) pushed modernization and liberal reform. Serfs were emancipated but most remained tenant peasants (1861).
1863-1864: The Polish January Uprising was crushed. During Russification, the Polish, Lithuanian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian languages were suppressed.
1880s-1890s: Jews were blamed for the Tsar's assassination. Alexander IlI (r. 1881-1894) reversed liberal reforms. Finance Minister Sergei Witte moved Russia to the gold standard and sought foreign investment.
1905: Russia's defeat in the Russo-Japanese War sparked a liberal revolution. A new constitution was adopted and the legislative Duma was formed
1906-1911: Conservative Prime Minister Peter Stolypin reforms agriculture to improve peasant life and stabilize politics. He imposed martial law and executed more than 3,000 revolutionaries.

Italian Unification

1796-1815: French occupation brought political consolidation and liberal reforms. Italy was under Austrian control after 1815. Conservatives returned to power.
1820s-1840s: Liberal Carbonari secret societies were dedicated to Risorgimento (Rising Again). Giuseppe Mazzini started Young Italy (1831) to establish a constitutional republic. The 1848 revolutions failed.
1859-1860: Victor Emmanuel Il and Prime Minister Camillo Cavour of Piedmont-Sardinia allied with the French to drive Austria out of northern Italy. Giuseppe Garibaldi's romantic nationalistic Red Shirts captured southern Italy.
Victor Emmanuel II was crowned king of Italy (r. 1861-1878). Venice (1866) and the Papal State (1870) were added, and the capital moved to Rome.

German Unification

German Question: Austria's answer was unification of all Germans into one Greater Germany (Grossdeutsche). Prussia backed a smaller Germany excluding Austria (Kleindeutsche).
Friedrich List championed the Zollverein custom union (1834).
The Frankfurt Assembly (1848) failed when Frederick William IV of Prussia refused the crown. Otto von Bismarck undertook unification not by liberal speeches and votes" but by conservative "iron and blood."
Prussia launched three wars of unification vs. Denmark (1864), Austria (1866), and France (1870-1871). Prussians occupied Paris, Wilhelm I was crowned Kaiser at Versailles, Alsace-Lorraine was annexed, and Germany became the dominant continental power.
Bismarck's Kulturkampf (Culture War) vs. the Catholic Church failed.

Alliance Systems

1871: Bismarck practiced realpolitik. He declared Germany a "satisfied power" and established alliances to maintain a stable peace.
1873: The Three Emperors' League of conservative Germany, Austria, and Russia was established to control eastern Europe, isolate France, and manage Russian and Austro-Hungarian ambition in the Balkans.
1878: German-Russian relations soured in the Congress of Berlin.
1882. Germany, Austria, and Italy formed the Triple Alliance.
1887- Reinsurance Treaty secretly stabilized German-Russian relations.
1804 After Kaiser Wilhelm II dismissed Bismarck, he refused to renew the Reinsurance Treaty so Russia allied with France.
1914: The intensifying German-British imperial rivalry and naval arms race led Britain to join France and Russia in the Triple Entente.

Anti-Semitism

Myth of the cursed, eternally Wandering Jew came to represent the stateless Jewish community in nationalistic era.
J.G. Herder blamed Germany's problems on parasitic Jews.
Richard Wagner ("Ride of Valkyries" from Ring Cycle, 1870) criticized Jewish influence in German culture in Judaism in Music (1850).
French Arthur de Gobineau's Inequality of Human Races (1855) advanced scientific racism and Aryan theory.
Withelm Marr's Way to Victory (1879) claimed Germans and Jews locked in Social Darwinian race struggle.
Jews blamed for assassination of Tsar Alexander II (1881). Russian anti-Semitic pogroms killed about 250,000 Jews.

Zionism

Édouard Drumont published La Libre Parole (1892) and founded the Antisemitic League of France.
French Dreyfus Affair convinced Hungarian journalist Theodor Herzl to call for a Jewish State (1896), which began the Zionist movement.
Austrian Mayor of Vienna Karl Lueger (1897-1910) exploited anti-Semitism for popular appeal.
British Houston Stewart Chamberlain's Foundations of 19th Century (1899) claimed civilization was saved from Jewish corruption when Aryan Germans invaded the Roman Empire. Chamberlain feared race-mixing.
Members of the Jewish Rothschild family were the world's richest bankers reinforcing conspiracy theories. Russian secret police chiels Protocols of Elders of Zion (1903) reported false global domination plot by jews.

The Balkan Crises

Ethnic nationalism broke down the Turkish millet system. The Tanzimat movement attempted to modernize and liberalize the Ottoman Empire but failed.
1831: Britain, France, and Russia aided the Greek War of Independence.
1878: Russia championed Pan-Slavism and helped Romania, Serbia, Montenegro, and Bulgaria win independence. Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina. The Congress of Berlin limited Russian gains and tainted German-Russian relations.
Young Turks wanted to modernize the Ottoman Empire.
First Balkan War, 1912-1913: The Balkan League (Bulgaria, Greece, Serbia, Montenegro) drove the Turks from Macedonia and Albania.
Second Balkan War, 1913: Bulgaria was defeated after attacking its allies over the first war's spoils. Serbia was enlarged by 80%, and its population doubled.

3.5 Global Empires

Colonial Nationalist Movement: China

The Latin American revolutions were prompted by the Napoleonic French occupation of Spain and Portugal.
1807-1820: The Portuguese court fled to Brazil. When João VI returned to Europe, son Pedro I was declared emperor of Brazil (1822).
1810-1821: Miguel Hidalgo and José Morelos began the Mexican War of Independence. Agustín de Inturbide was briefly proclaimed emperor of Mexico. The United Mexican States, a federal republic, was established in 1824.
1811-1825: Simón Bolívar, the Liberator, led the independence movement in New Grenada (Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador), Peru, and Bolivia.
José de San Martín fought revolutions in Argentina (1812), Chile (1818), and Peru (1821).
José Marti led the fight for Cuban independence (1895). Theodore Roosevelt led the charge in the Spanish-American War (1898).

Colonial Nationalist Movement: Japan

15th- 18th century: Old Imperialism traded with coastal regions.
19th-20th century: New Imperialism moved inland, subjugated indigenous peoples, imposed Western law and culture, and exploited resources. The demand for copper, rubber, palm oil, and tin was driven by industrialization.
1819: Stamford Raffles founded Singapore for the British East India Company.
7839-1860: The Opium Wars won Britain trade rights to China.
1879-1905: Leopold II of Belgium extracted rubber from the Congo.
1880s-1902: British Cecil Rhodes dug South African gold and diamonds.
Steam-powered navies needed coaling stations. Gunboat diplomacy won Indochina for France (1893) and Zanzibar for Britain (1896).
1902: Germany, Britain, and Italy blockaded Venezuela over debt repayment.

Colonial Nationalist Movement: South Africa

Christian Zeal: British missionary David Livingstone disappeared exploring southern Africa's interior. NY Herald reporter Henry Stanley greeted him (1873) with "Dr. Livingstone, I presume?"
National Militarism: Wilhelm Il's Weltpolitik foreign policy (1891) demanded Germany take its "place in the sun" through aggressive diplomacy, overseas colonies, and a powerful navy.
Racial Darwinism: British colonists exterminated Tasmanian aborigines in the Black War (1825-1832). Germans conducted genocide of Herero and Nama natives of Southwest Africa (1904-1907).
Cultural Imperialism: British Rudyard Kipling (Jungle Book, 1894; Kim, 1901) wrote "White Man's Burden" (1899) cheering on the American civilizing mission in the Philippine Islands.

Colonial Nationalist Movement: India

1884-1885: Berlin Conference was called by German Chancellor Otto von Bismarck to organize the European conquest of Africa.
1898: The Fashoda Conference defused war tensions between Britain and France over the conquest of Sudan.
1905-1906: Kaiser Wilhelm Il sought to reduce French influence in North Africa causing the First Moroccan Crisis. The German bid failed. British-French relations warmed at the Algeciras Conference.
1911: Wilhelm I| caused the Second Moroccan Crisis by sending German warships to test British-French Entente Cordiale. Britain drew yet closer to France fearing German naval growth.

Reactions to Empire in Europe

1830: France conquered Algeria and then Tunisia (1881) and Morocco (1912).
1850-1860s: Britons Richard Burton, John Speke, and James Grant searched! the Great Lakes region for the source of the Nile.
1869: French Ferdinand de Lesseps dug the Suez Canal. Britain occupied Egypt to control it (1882).
1879: The British conquered the southern African Zulu Kingdom.
1884-1908: Leopold II sent Henry Stanley to Congo ostensibly for humanitarian development. 8-16 million killed harvesting rubber in the Belgian king's Congo Free State.
1895-1896: Menelik Il of Ethiopia repulsed an Italian invasion.
1898: The British-Egyptian force crushed the Mahdist revolt in Sudan.
1899-1902: Cecil Rhodes wanted Britain to span "from Cape to Cairo." The British beat Dutch-descended Boers in the South African War.
1911-1912: Italy took Libya. 90% of Africa was under European control.

Artistic Interpretations of Empire

1813-1907: Britain and Russia played the Great Game for influence in Central Asia, Persia, Afghanistan, China, Mongolia, and Tibet.
1857-1858: Indian soldiers led the Sepoy Mutiny against the British East India Company. Authority transferred to the British Raj (1858-1947). Millions starved while India exported rice, wheat, opium, and cotton.
1860: Russia founded Vladivostok and sold Alaska to the United States (1867).
1864-1867: Russia eradicated over 900,000 Black Sea Circassians.
1884-1893: Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos claimed French Indochina.
1899-1901: An imperialist coalition put down the Chinese Boxer Rebellion. Beijing was occupied. Russia took Manchuria. The United States hoped for an Open Door Policy as China was carved into spheres of influence.
1904-1905: Meiji Japan won the Russo-Japanese War with naval victory at Tsushima Straits.

19th-Century Medical Advances

British Indians and French North Africans supplied military manpower.
Breech loading rifles like the Prussian Dreyse needle gun (1841) allowed rapid rate of fire.
Claude-Étienne Minie's muzzle-loading high-velocity conical point buller (1347) cut straight through bodies and shattered bone.
Henry Stanley took 600 rounds/minute Maxim machine gun to "darkest Africa" (1889), 5,000 Matabele warriors were defeated by 50 British South African Police armed with four Maxims (1893).
British Indian Dum Dum arsenal made the expanding bullet (1896). It was ruled "too inhumane" at the Hague Convention (1899).
German Krupp Big Bertha howitzer cannon (1900) fired an 1,800-pound shell up to 9 miles.
British HMS Dreadnought (1906) was a revolutionary battleship.

19th-Century Weaponry

German Johannes Müller's Elements of Physiology (1833-1840) became the standard medical textbook.
Surgery: American William Morton introduced anesthesia (1846). French Louis Pasteur's germ theory (1857) established bacteriology and advanced immunology. British Joseph Lister sterilized instruments and wounds with antiseptics (1865).
Tropical Disease: Quinine was given as a prophylactic tonic to combat malaria (1850). British Patrick Manson connected mosquitoes to disease (1877). American Walter Reed fought yellow fever (1900).
German Robert Koch discovered microbic causes of tuberculosis, cholera, and anthrax (1880s-1900s).
The British average lifespan in 1900 was 48 years for men and 52 for women.

The New Imperialism: The Great Game

French Jules Verne wrote science-fiction of exciting exploration: Journey to Center of the Earth (1864), 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea (1870), and Around the World in 80 Days (1873).
Impressionist painters collected Japanese art. Dutch Vincent van Gogh (Courtesan, 1887) envied the ability to "do a figure with a few confident strokes." Japanese artwork "is as simple as breathing."
French Paul Gauguin's Tahitian natives (Sacred Spring, Sweet Dreams, 1894) was painted in Primitivist style. Spanish Pablo Picasso was influenced by African tribal masks (Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907).
British Rudyard Kipling's stories and poems were set in British India-Jungle Book (1894), "Man Who Would Be King" (1888), and Kim (1901).
British Joseph Conrad's Heart of Darkness (1899) gave fictional depiction of Leopold Il's brutal reign in Congo.

The New Imperialism: Scramble for Africa

The ultra-nationalist Pan-German League (1891) sought aggressive Social Darwinian imperialist expansion. It called for superior Germans to conquer inferior Jews and Slavs of eastern Europe.
British Henry Labouchère wrote the satirical "Brown Man's Burden" (1899).
British John A. Hobson decried negative economic and moral aspects of Imperialism (1902). Foreign markets benefit only capitalists at the expense of workers and imperial subjects.
Russian V.I. Lenin started Imperialism, the Highest Stage of Capitalism (1916), divides the world between great powers and monopolies. Profits allow business to bribe politicians and labor leaders and repress worker discontent. Imperial competition to blame for "annexationist, predatory, plunderous" First World War.

The New Imperialism: Diplomatic Crises

The Sepoy Mutiny (1857) ended British East India Company rule and led to direct crown rule of British Raj.
Allan Hume founded Indian National Congress (1885) giving the English-educated Indian elite a nonviolent outlet for discontent.
Dadabhai Naoroji was elected to the British Parliament (1892). He wanted an active role in governing India as a loyal colony. Bal Gangadhar Tilak stoked Hindu nationalism demanding swaraj (self-rule).

The New Imperialism: White Man’s Burden

Britain seized Dutch Cape Colony (1806).
Boers made the Great Trek (1830s-1840s) into the African interior.
Despite losing the Battle of Isandlwana, the British won the Anglo-Zulu War (1879).
Afrikaner Paul Kruger's Transval Republic and Orange Free State lost the Boer War (1899-1902). The British formed the Union of South Africa (1910).

The New Imperialism: Economic Motives

American Matthew Perry ended Japanese isolation with the Treaty of Kanagawa (1854).
Emperor Komei resisted westernization and ordered "expel the barbarians" (1863), but Japan was shelled into submission by the British Navy in the Shimonoseki War (1864).
Meiji Restoration saw rapid reform and industrialization (1868-1912). The Iwakura Mission (1871) studied Western societies.
Japan won wars against China (1894-1895) and Russia (1904-1905) and annexed Korea (1910).

Latin American Revolutions

Chinese Empress Dowager Ci Xi encouraged the anti-Western Boxer Rebellion
(1899-1901). The imperialist coalition captured Beijing.
Emperor Puyi abdicated after the Chinese Revolution (1911).
Sun Yat-sen called for nationalism, democracy, and welfare. Nationalist Kuomintang army defeated warlords and unified the Republic (1916-1928).

3.6 Scientific Worldview

Romanticism: Nature and Genius

Romanticism was a reaction to Enlightenment, Neoclassicism, and industrialization and was driven by strong emotions in time of great political and economic change.
Surrounded by urban growth, German Caspar Friedrich (Wanderer, 1818) and British John Constable (Cornfield, 1826) adored nature.
Rejecting reason, Swiss Henry Fuseli (Nightmare, 1781) and British William Blake (Great Red Dragon, 1808) embraced the supernatural.
Amidst the revolutionary storm, French Théodore Géricault portrayed ghastly survivors of tragic shipwreck (Raft of the Medusa, 1819).
Within the emerging mass society, German Ludwig van Beethoven (Ninth Symphony, 1828) epitomized frenzied individual artistic genius. Polish Frédéric Chopin (Minute Waltz, 1847) was hailed as a genius upon arrival in Paris in 1831.

Romanticism: History, Myth, and Wonder

In nationalistic era, French painter Eugene Delacroix (Liberty Leading the People, 1830) and Russian composer Pyotr Tchaikovsky (1812 Overture, 1880) celebrated great national historic moments.
In architecture, the Gothic-style British Houses of Parliament and the Neo-Romanesque-style Neuschwanstein Castle harkened back to the Middle Ages.
German opera composer Richard Wagner (Ring Cycle, 1869-1876) drew upon mythic Germanic sagas for inspiration.
In the age of imperialist expansion, Delacroix (Women of Algiers, 1834) captured exotic wonder and British J.M.W. Turner marveled at new technologies (Rail, Steam, Speed, 1844).

Romanticism: Literature

British poets Samuel Taylor Coleridge (Kubla Khan, 1797), William Wordsworth (Rime of the Ancient Mariner, 1798), Lord Byron (Childe Harold's Pilgrimage, (1812-1818), Percy Shelley (Ozymandias, 1818), and John Keats (Ode on a Grecian Urn, 1819) captured the Romantic spirit.
Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm (Fairy Tales, 1814-1816) drew on eerie German folk culture.
Mary Shelley (Frankenstein, 1817) warned of scientific dangers in her supernatural thriller.
Walter Scott (Ivanhoe, 1819), Alexander Dumas (Three Musketeers, 1844), and Victor Hugo (Les Misérables, 1862) wrote historical epics.

Positivism

Positivism is a philosophy that rejects all theoretical speculation, accepting only positive empirical data and direct experience.
It was founded by French Auguste Comte who was influenced by Diderot, Saint-Simon, and Bentham. British John Stuart Mill and Herbert Spencer practiced it.
It used the science of sociology to study society in the wake of the French and Industrial Revolutions. Positivism viewed scientific progress as the solution to social ills and sought the "greatest good for the greatest number of people."
Comte called for secular spiritualism to replace supernatural Christianity. A new religion worshiping humanity began.

Realism

Realism rejected idealistic Neoclassicism and fanciful Romanticism. Democratized art by portraying the grim reality of working class life.
Honoré de Balzac (Human Comedy, 1830-1850), Gustave Flaubert (Madame Bovary, 1856), and Émile Zola (Germinal, 1885) wrote French realist literature.
Gustave Courbet (Stonebreakers, 1849) and Jean-François Millet (Gleaners,1857) painted the French working class.
Charles Dickens (Great Expectations, 1861), George Eliot (Silas Marner, 1861), and Thomas Hardy (Jude the Obscure, 1895) critiqued class differences in British Victorian society.
Fyodor Dostoevsky (Crime and Punishment, 1866) and Leo Tolstoy (Anna Karenina, 1877) wrote Russian realist masterpieces.

Social Darwinism

British Charles Darwin (Origin of Species, 1859) proposed natural selection. Herbert Spencer (Social Organism, 1860) applied the theory to individuals within society and between nations.
Francis Galton (Hereditary Genius, 1869) claimed intellectually inferior people were out-reproducing more intelligent superior individuals. He suggested eugenics to encourage the "most fit" to breed and discourage the "less fit" from having children.
Darwin stated medicine lets "weak members of civilized societies propagate their kind" (Descent of Man, 1882).
Alfred Ploetz founded the German Society for Racial Hygiene (1905) to regain "purity" of white Nordic race through selective breeding and sterilization of the "impure."

Modern Philosophy

German Friedrich Nietzsche (Thus Spoke Zarathustra, 1883-1885) upturned Western religion, morality, philosophy. He deplored weak, pitiful Christian herd-mentality and celebrated genius individuals who were able to live by their own principles as Supermen driven by will to power.
French Henri Bergson (Creative Evolution, 1907) rejected mechanical, rational science. He emphasized the immediate experience, intuition, and creative élan vital but focused on the process of change and becoming rather than permanent being.
French Georges Sorel (Reflections on Violence, 1908) supported a violent working class revolution. He attacked data-driven science as an "odious insult to human dignity." He emphasized the inspiring power of myth as the driver of human action.

Catholic Church in an Age of Progress

Italy: The pope lost political power during unification, but the First Vatican Council (1870) affirmed theological papal primacy, papal infallibility, and papal supremacy.
France: The clergy were under state control after the Concordat of 1801. The 1872 census listed 35.4 of 36 million as Catholic. Liberal republicans attacked the conservative monarchist Church in the Third Republic. Jules Ferry created secular state schools (1882). Émile Combes closed all Catholic schools, disbanded religious orders, separated church and state, and confiscated Church property (1902-1905).
Germany: Otto von Bismarck waged a failed Kulturkampf (Culture War) versus Catholicism (1873-1879). Catholics formed the Center Party, won 1/4 of the Imperial Diet, and allied with Bismarck against socialists.

Protestant Christianity in an Age of Progress

Protestantism was rocked by the Enlightenment and new findings in history, anthropology, geology, and biology that challenged biblical understanding. Urbanization, liberalism, and socialism reduced church attendance and religious influence.
German Friedrich Schleiermacher's liberal theology reconciled Enlightenment thought with traditional Protestantism.
Danish theologian Soren Aabye Kierkegaard examined the role of emotions in individual choice and personal Christian ethics.
Frederick William III of Prussia merged Lutheran and Reformed churches to gain full control of church affairs.
Karl Marx called religion the "opium of the people" giving false hope.

Psychology

German Wilhelm Wundt set up the first experimental psychology lab (1879).
French Pierre Janet studied the unconscious mind, impact of traumatic experiences, disassociation, and transference.
Austrian Sigmund Freud pioneered psychoanalysis and described the relationship of ego, id, and superego in the human psyche. His Interpretation of Dreams (1900) explored the unconscious mind and Oedipus complex.
Russian Ivan Pavlov studied behavioral conditioning in dogs (1901).
Swiss Carl Jung (Psychology of the Unconscious, 1912) studied collective unconscious, ancestral memory, and personality types.

Modern Physics

Classical mechanics was unable to explain new discoveries, which led to the development of modern physics to describe atomic scale and velocities approaching light speed.
1895: German Wilhelm Röntgen discovered X-rays.
1898: French Marie and Pierre Curie studied radioactivity.
1900: German Max Planck hypothesized quantum theory to explain subatomic behavior.
1905: Albert Einstein postulated a special theory of relativity to explain space-time relations. His general theory of relativity (1911) explored the impact of gravity on space-time.

Modern Art: Music

Gioachino Rossini (William Tell, 1829), Giuseppi Verdi (Aida, 1871), and Giacomo Puccini (Madame Butterfly, 1904) wrote a popular Italian opera.
Johann Strauss Jr. (Blue Danube, 1867) was the Austrian Waltz King.
Edvard Grieg (Peer Gynt, 1876) provoked Norwegian nationalism. Jean Sibelius
(Finlandia, 1899) inspired Finnish nationalism.
Gilbert and Sullivan (Mikado, 1885) wrote comic British operas.
Claude Debussy's Impressionistic La Mer (1903-1905) suggested a moody French sea.
Igor Stravinsky's Russian ballet Rite of Spring (1913) sparked a riot.

Modern Art: Photography and Film

French Louis Daguerre popularized photography (1839).
British physicist James Maxwell took the first color photo (1861).
The French Lumière Brothers made the first motion picture (1895). Train Pulling into a Station "caused fear, terror, even panic" in the audience.
French Georges Méliès made the fantastic Trip to the Moon (1902).

Modern Art: Painting

Impressionism: Claude Monet (Impression, Sunrise, 1872) and Pierre-Auguste Renoir (Dance at Le Moulin de la Galette, 1874) painted moments of outdoor leisure in lively colors.
Post-impressionism: It used various techniques. French Georges Seurat (Sunday Afternoon, 1884-1886) tried Pointillism. Dutch Vincent Van Gogh made swirly Starry Night (1889). French Henri Matisse (Woman with Hat, 1905) used wild Fauvism.
Cubism: Spanish Pablo Picasso (Les Demoiselles d'Avignon, 1907) and French Georges Braque (Guitar, 1909-1910) analyzed shapes.
Expressionism: Norwegian Edvard Munch (Scream, 1893) and Russian Wassily Kandinsky (Blue Rider Almanac, 1912) provoked emotion.
Italian Futurism: Umberto Boccioni (City Rises, 1910) and Giacomo Balla (Abstract Speed and Sound, 1913-1914) glorified modernity.

Period 4: Sarajevo to Brussels (1914-Present)

Interaction of Europe and the World

The United States became the leading Western state during World War I. Wilson shaped the Paris Conference. The 1929 stock market crash led to global depression. The Marshall Plan funded the post-World War Il Western economic miracle. American culture deeply influenced Europe.
World Wars I and II entangled the global community. During the Cold War, the United States and USSR influenced developing states. Proxy wars raged in Korea, Vietnam, and Afghanistan.
The League of Nations mandates extended French and British imperialism post-World War I. National independence movements pressured empires. Decolonization followed World War II. Immigration after World War II triggered anti-immigrant agitation and nationalism.
European communication and transportation technologies sped and deepened globalization.

Poverty and Prosperity

World War I shattered faith in continued material progress.
The Russian Revolution resulted from social inequality. Incomplete industrialization led to Lenin's NEP and Stalin's 5-Year Plans.
Post-World War I economies relied on investment capital from the United States. Systemic instability resulted in the Great Depression.
Fascism reacted against both communism and capitalism.
European integration and global trade organizations shaped the post-World War II Western economic miracle. Welfare programs expanded.
A mass consumer economy led to a rapidly rising standard of living.
Perestroika failed to revive the stagnant Soviet economy.
Globalization and American influence generated criticism.
More women had professional careers and greater public roles.

Objective Knowledge and Subjective Visions

World War I shattered faith in continued moral and intellectual progress.
Intellectual movements questioned the existence of objective knowledge, limits of reason, and role of religion.
Fascists rejected democracy and glorified war and nationalism.
The complexity of modern science increased philosophical uncertainty.
Scientific and engineering breakthroughs improved the quality of life but imperiled life on Earth.
Modern life and total wars led to a reassessment of religion's role.
Art became exceptionally individualistic, abstract, experimental, subjective, and emotional.
Feminism and economic changes altered family dynamics.

States and Other Institutions of Power

World War I resulted from nationalism, imperialism, industrialization, militarism, and alliances. Total war centralized state power in World Wars I and Il. World War I destroyed empires and reorganized states.
Totalitarian regimes were established in Russia, Italy, and Germany. State propaganda used mass media. Britain and France failed to appease Axis aggression. Germany tried to impose a new racial order.
Empires decolonized after World War II. Europe was divided into opposing camps during the Cold War. Nuclear weapons threatened existence.
European economic and political unity developed after World War II.
Stagnate state-run economies contributed to communist collapse. Nationalism reemerged in former communist states.
The Second Vatican Council redefined the Catholic Church.
Women were elected to prominent leadership positions.

Individual and Society

Totalitarianism suppressed individual rights.
Total war ravaged civilian populations. The Armenian, Holodomor, Holocaust, and Bosnian genocides destroyed marginalized groups.
Communist regimes waged class warfare.
Irish, Basque, and Chechen separatists sought independence.
Post-World War II guest workers and immigrants faced discrimination.
The Internet expanded public discourse.
New opportunities for women opened.
Gays and lesbians fought for civil rights.
Youth movements protested the status quo.

4.1 Global War and Peace

The First World War: Causes

Nationalism was sparked by the French Revolution and heated by Pan-Slavic, Pan-German, and Social Darwinian ideologies.
Imperialism escalated tensions as during the Moroccan Crises.
Industrialization made large-scale, total war possible.
Militarism intensified. Armed forces doubled in size between 1890 and 1914. British military spending increased 117%; German military spending increased 158%.
The Alliance System put Great Powers in opposing blocs. The Triple Alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy faced off against the Triple Entente of France, Russia, and Britain.
The Balkan Crisis resulted from Slavic nationalism and Russian and Austro-Hungarian competition for influence and territory.

The First World War: The Spark

June 28, 1914: Hapsburg heir Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assassinated by Serbian Black Hand terrorist Gavrilo Princip in Sarajevo.
July 28, 1914: Austria-Hungary received a "Blank Check" of support from ally Germany and declared war on Serbia after its refusal to comply with its ultimatum. Russia mobilized the next day to support Serbia.
August 4, 1914: Germany declared war on Russia and France. Britain entered when the German Schlieffen plan violated Belgian neutrality.
The Russian invasion of Germany stopped at Tannenberg. The German invasion of France was halted at the Marne. Trench warfare developed.
October-November 1914: Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers.
December 25, 1914: Christmas truce on Western front.
1915-1916: Italy and Romania joined Allied Entente Powers.

The First World War: Technologies

It cook 280 trains to move one German army corps of 40,000 men. "Build no more fortresses, build railways." —Field Marshall Moltke
Germans had 12,000 machine guns in August 1914. Each gun was able to fire 600 rounds/minute, with firepower equivalent to 80 riflemen.
Barbed wire and barricades were strewn across No Man's Land.
Tear, mustard, phosgene, and chlorine gas made it a "chemist's war." Germans fired over one million artillery shells in five hours during the Spring 1918 offensive. The Paris Gun had an 81-mile range.
The British developed tanks to cross No Man's Land.
German unrestricted submarine warfare blockaded Britain.
Airplanes were first used for reconnaissance and later as fighters and bombers. Zeppelins flew 54 bombing runs on Allied cities.

The First World War: Stalemate

Western Front: Trenches stretched from the Atlantic to the Swiss border. There were between 30 and 300 yards of No Man's Land between lines. Massive offensives failed to break through strong defenses. There were about 700,000 casualties at Verdun and 1,000,000 at Somme, including 60,000 British on the first day.
Eastern Front: It stretched 1,000 miles from the Baltic Sea to the Black Sea allowing more movement and prohibiting trench warfare. Bolsheviks surrendered vast Russian territory at Brest-Litovsk.
Italian Front: Fierce fighting on Italian/Austro-Hungarian border high in the Alps. There were over 1,000,000 casualties in the 12 battles of Isonzo.
Balkan Front: Turks repulsed British-Australian landing at Gallipoli intended to open a supply line to Russia. Serbia and Romania were occupied by Austria-Hungary and Bulgaria.

The First World War: War Socialism

The Allies spent $147 billion; the Central Powers spent $61 billion (1913 U.S. dollars).
Total war required massive munitions industries and mobilized agriculture.
Bulgaria mobilized 25% of its population, the highest percentage of any combatant nation.
German conservatives used war socialism to maximize war production and control labor. David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill promoted similar measures in Britain.
Germany suffered severe food shortages with rations 20% or less of peacetime consumption. Around half-million civilians died from malnutrition. The Winter of 1916-1917 is known as "Turnip Winter.

The First World War: Home Front

The British War Propaganda Bureau turned to Arthur Conan Doyle, Rudyard Kipling, and H.G. Wells for ideas. Recruitment posters appealed to patriotism and doing one's "fair share."
Women played major roles on home fronts. They accounted for 43% of the Russian labor force by 1917. They won suffrage in Britain, Denmark, Austria, the Netherlands, Germany, Russia, Sweden, and Ireland after the war.
Service together in trenches broke down British class barriers.
Germans executed 6,500 civilians in the 1914 Rape of Belgium. American Herbert Hoover organized humanitarian relief to Belgium.
Ireland rose up in the 1916 Easter Rebellion.
German labor leaders led massive strikes in 1917-1918.
50-100 million died worldwide from the 1918 Spanish flu.

The First World War: Global Impact

Ottoman Turks feared the Armenian Christian minority would aid Russia. Mehmed Talaat, Ismail Enver, and Ahmen Djemal of the ruling Committee of Union and Progress ordered Armenian Genocide (1915-1916), the death march deportation of 1.5 million people.
British T.E. Lawrence instigated the Arab Revolt in the Ottoman Empire.
The Japanese captured German Pacific islands and the German sphere in China.
Germany lost most African colonies early on, but General Paul von Lettow-Vorbeck harassed 300,000 Allied troops in East Africa with just 14,000 German guerrillas through the entire war.
April 1917: The United States entered war "to make the world safe for democracy" after resumption of German submarine warfare, the March 1917 Russian Revolution, and the Zimmerman telegram. It joined the Éntente as an Associated Power.

The First World War: The Russian Revolution

1905: Revolution led to promised reform but failed to deliver.
1914-1917: Russia suffered catastrophic casualties. Duma demanded change. Tsar Nicholas Il took personal command at the front lines. Tsarina Alexandra was influenced by the strange holy man Rasputin.
March 1917: A bread riot in Petrograd (St. Petersburg) quickly spread. Soldiers sent to restore order joined the mob. Nicholas Il abdicated.
Provisional government under Alexander Kerensky passed liberal reform, remained in war, and launched the unpopular Kerensky Offensive. It shared power with the Petrograd Soviet whose Army Order No. 1 created chaos by passing the officers' authority to soldier committees.

The First World War: Armistice

April 1917: Entrance of the United States gave Allies an infusion of fresh
November 1917: V.I. Lenin and Leon Trotsky led the Bolshevik Revolution.
March 1918: Bolshevik Russia surrendered at Brest-Litovsk. Germany shifted troops to Western Front, launched a Spring Offensive, got within firing range of Paris, but lost momentum.
August 8, 1918: American reinforcements titled the balance. Allies launched the Hundred Days Offensive under French General Ferdinand Foch. The exhausted Germans fell back to the Hindenburg Line.
November 3, 1918: Sailors' mutiny at Kiel triggered the German Revolution.
November 9, 1918: German Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated.
November 11, 1918: The new German government under socialist Friedrich Ebert signed an armistice.

The First World War: Collapse

The traditional order totally collapsed in central and eastern Europe.
The March 1917 Russian Revolution ended 304 years of Romanov rule. The Bolshevik Revolution triggered fear of global communist tide.
Emperor Charles I relinquished power in 1918 ending 642 years of Hapsburg rule. Austria-Hungary fragmented.
Kaiser Wilhelm II's 1918 abdication ended 393 years of Hohenzollern rule in Prussia. The German Weimar Republic suppressed communist Spartacist Uprising (1919) and Kapp Putsch military coup (1920).
Short-lived communist regimes were established in Bavaria and Hungary.
Allies occupied the Ottoman Empire. Mehmed VI's Sultanate was abolished ending the 623-year reign of House of Osman. Mustafa Kemal Atatürk led the Turkish War of Independence (1919-1923) and transformed Turkey into a modern secular nation-state.

The Paris Peace Conference: The Treaty of Versailles

January 1919: Paris Peace Conference was led by French President Georges Clemenceau seeking future security from Germany, British Prime Minister David Lloyd George seeking preservation of the empire, and American President Woodrow Wilson guided by his 14 points including national self-determination.
The League of Nations was adopted. New political borders in Europe and the Middle East sowed seeds of future conflicts.
Germany was demilitarized and lost territory, colonies, and resources.
Article 231 War Guilt Clause placed blame on Germany. The exact amount of heavy war reparations was to be determined later.
Germany was not allowed to negotiate. Terms were imposed.
The German right-wing believed the stab-in-the-back myth that the German army did not lose but was betrayed by "November criminals."

The Paris Peace Conference: The League of Nations

The League of Nations grew from Wilson's idealism. It was meant to prevent future war by arbitration, but it had no power to uphold decisions.
1919: The Treaty of Versailles was rejected by the U.S. Senate. The United States was never a League member. Germany and the Soviet Union were non-League members at the start but were allowed to join later on.
1921-1922: The Washington Naval Conference limited the size and number of British, American, and Japanese battleships and carriers.
1925: The Locarno Treaty normalized relations with Germany. It confirmed Germany's postwar western borders but left eastern borders open to later renegotiation leaving Poland insecure.
1928: The Kellogg-Briand Pact made an idealistic promise not to use war to resolve future conflicts.

The Paris Peace Conference: Successor States

From Russia: Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland emerged.
From Austria-Hungary: Hungary and Czechoslovakia won independence.Territory was lost to Poland, Italy, Serbia, and Romania.
From Germany: Territory was lost to France, Belgium, Denmark, and Poland (including the Polish Corridor isolating German East Prussia).
From Bulgaria: Territory was lost to Greece.
To Serbia: Croatia and Slovenia were won to form Yugoslavia.
To Romania: Territory was won from Russia and Hungary.
1922: USSR formed. The Irish Free State won independence from Britain. Northern Ireland remained part of the United Kingdom.
New political borders somewhat matched actual national ethnic population distribution but left minorities in new states like Germans in Czechoslovakian Sudetenland.

The Paris Peace Conference: Middle East Mandates

Excited by prospects of Middle East oil, Britain and France began carving up the Ottoman Empire into spheres of influence in 1916 Sykes-Picot Agreement.
Britain promised Jewish banker Walter Rothschild a Jewish home in Palestine in Zionist 1917 Balfour Declaration contradicting promises in the 1915-1916 McMahon-Hussein correspondence with Arab leaders.
France won League of Nations mandates in Syria and Lebanon.
Britain won mandates in Iraq, Transjordan, and Palestine.
Ibn Saudi formed Saudi Arabia in 1932.

The Second World War: Italian Expansion

Treaty of London, 1915: Italy joined the Allies in World War I with a promise of territorial gains that went unfulfilled at the Paris Peace Conference.
1922: Mussolini sought control of the Balkans and dominance in the Mediterranean. 1920s-1930s: Italy brutally suppressed the Libyan independence movement.
1935: Italy invaded Ethiopia. The League of Nations denounced the attack.
1936: Italy and Nazi Germany supported nationalist Francisco Franco in the Spanish Civil War.
1939: Italy annexed Albania. Italy and Germany signed the Pact of Steel forming the Rome-Berlin Axis alliance.

The Second World War: German Rearmament and Expansion

1933: Nazis withdrew Germany from the League of Nations.
1935: Rearmament led to full-employment and the end of the Depression.
1936: Britain and France appease remilitarization of Rhineland.
1936-1937: Germany and Italy supported Franco in the Spanish Civil War. The German bombing of Guernica was commemorated by Picasso.
March 1938: German-Austrian Anschluss formed Greater Germany.
September 1938: Demand for Czechoslovakian Sudetenland was appeased at the Munich Conference.
March 1939: The Munich agreement was violated. Germany occupied all of Czechoslovakia.
May 1939: Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy signed the Pact of Steel.
August 1939: Nazi-Soviet Nonaggression Pact agreed to division of Poland and Baltic States.

The Second World War: Early Axis Victories

September 1, 1939: German Blitzkrieg invasion of Poland. Britain and France declared war but took little action during the Phony War, or Sitzkrieg. USSR invaded Poland from the east two weeks later.
November 1939: USSR invaded Finland.
April 1940: Germany invaded Denmark and Norway.
May 1940: Germany invaded Netherlands, Belgium, and France.
June 1940: Paris fell. The British army escaped at Dunkirk. Germany occupied the north of France; Vichy French puppet regime led by Henri-Philippe Pétain controlled the south of France. The USSR occupied Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania.
July-October 1940: German Luftwaffe conducted Blitz bombing of London but was repulsed by the Royal Air Force in the Battle of Britain.

The Second World War: Operation Barbarossa

1940-1941: Japan, Hungary, Bulgaria, Romania, and Finland joined the Axis.
April 1941: Germany and Italy invaded Yugoslavia and Greece. Communist Josip Tito led Yugoslav resistance.
June 22, 1941: 3.5 million Axis troops invaded USSR in Operation Barbarossa. The German advance was stopped at the Battle of Moscow.
An estimated 20-40 million Soviets were dead by war's end.
3.5 million Soviet prisoners of war were killed by the Germans.
Nazi SS Einsatzgruppen swept the occupied USSR and shot 2 million civilians including 1.3 million Jews with help of local collaborators.
1.2 million civilians starved during the 872-day Siege of Leningrad.

The Second World War: Turning Points

December 7, 1942: Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor drew the United States into the war.
March 1942: Britain began strategic bombing of Germany. The Allies dropped 2.7 million tons of bombs by 1945.
November 1942: British and U.S. forces landed in French North Africa. The British under Bernard Montgomery pushed Erwin Rommel's German Africa Corps out of Egypt at El Alamein.
August 1942-February 1943: The USSR destroyed the German army at Stalingrad in the biggest battle in history turning the tide of the war.
July 1943: The Allies landed in Sicily. Italian King Victor Emmanuel Ill arrested Mussolini. The Germans occupied Italy, rescued Il Duce, and reinstalled him as a puppet dictator.
August 1943: The USSR repulsed the last German eastern offensive at Kursk. The Germans began falling back, and the Soviets pushed on toward Berlin.

The Second World War: Later Allied Victories

June 6, 1944: Allied forces landed in Normandy, France, on D-Day opening second front.
August 1944: Paris was liberated. Free French Forces leader Charles de Gaulle led the procession. Up to 200,000 Poles died in the Warsaw Uprising.
December 1944-January 1945: The United States repulsed the last German western offensive at the Battle of the Bulge. 85% of Warsaw was destroyed before liberation by the advancing Soviet Red Army.
April 1945: American and Soviet forces met at the Elbe River. Mussolini was killed by Italian partisans. Hitler committed suicide in the Führer bunker as Soviets took Berlin.
May 8, 1945: V-E Day celebrated German unconditional surrender.
August 1945: The United States dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki. 1.6 million Soviets invaded Manchuria. Japan surrendered.

The Second World War: The United Nations

August 1941: Britain and the United States signed the Atlantic Charter stating war goals: no territorial gains, national self-determination, global cooperation, freedom of seas, disarmament of aggressor nations.
January 1942: 26 nations led by the United States, Britain, USSR, and China signed the Declaration of United Nations confirming the Atlantic Charter.
April 1945: The United Nations held its first meeting in San Francisco, USA. Membership was open to all countries who had declared war on Nazi Germany by March 1945.
October 1945: The UN Charter was ratified by 46 signatory nations.
1951: The UN Headquarters opened in New York City, USA.

The Second World War: War Conferences

Casabianca, Morocco, January 1943: American Franklin Roosevelt, British Winston Churchill, and French Charles de Gaulle met to plan the war. They agreed on the goal of Axis unconditional surrender.
Tehran, Iran, November 1943: The Big Three-FDR, Churchill, and Joseph Stalin-met for the first time. The United States and Britain agreed to open a second front in France.
Yalta, Russia, February 1945: FDR, Churchill, and Stalin met to discuss the organization of postwar Germany and elections in Eastern Europe.
Potsdam, Germany, July 1945: American Harry Truman, British Clement Atlee, and Soviet Stalin met to plan demilitarization, denazification, democratization of Germany, the prosecution of Nazi war criminals, and the endgame with Japan.

The Cold War: The Division of Europe

1945: The Soviets took the Baltic states, Poland, Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Albania, and East Germany in World War II.
Stalin broke the free elections promise made at Yalta. The satellite states were placed under communist control. American George Kennan's 1946 Long Telegram warned that the Soviet Union saw peaceful coexistence with the capitalist West as impossible.
Yugoslavia was liberated by Allied-supplied resistance fighters. Josip Tito broke with Stalin in 1948 and led an independent communist state until his death in 1980. Nationalism was suppressed with the slogan "brotherhood and unity."
1946: Winston Churchill spoke of an iron curtain "From Stettin in the Baltic to Trieste in the Adriatic."

The Cold War: Containment

1947: The U.S. Truman Doctrine funded Greece and Turkey to contain communism. The Eisenhower Doctrine contained the Middle East.
1947: The U.S. Marshall Plan funded European recovery. Stalin forbade Eastern bloc nations from accepting U.S. aid.
1948-1949: USSR blockaded road and rail access to West Berlin. The United States and Britain sent supplies via the Berlin Airlift.
1949: Soviets tested an atomic bomb. The United States, Britain, France, Canada, Italy, and others formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO).
Germany was divided into communist East German Democratic Republic and capitalist West German Federal Republic.
Radio Free Europe broadcasted to the communist Eastern bloc.
1955: The Eastern bloc formed the Warsaw Pact.

The Cold War: 1956 Crisis

Stalin died in 1953. Nikita Khrushchev gave a February 1956 Secret Speech starting the process of de-Stalinization.
June 1956: Striking Polish workers suppressed by Polish-Soviet communist army and police.
October 1956: Communist reformer Ime Nagy sought neutral withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact for Hungary. Spontaneous Hungarian popular uprising was crushed by Soviet tanks. The United States did not intervene.
November 1956: Egyptian President Gamal Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal. An Israeli, British, and French imperialist invasion of Egypt denounced by the United States, USSR, and United Nations dealing a massive blow to British power and prestige.

The Cold War: Competition

1950s-1980s: The United States and USSR vied for influence in the developing world.
1957: The Sputnik / launch triggered the Space Race. U.S. Apollo missions landed astronauts on the Moon (1969).
1959: Richard Nixon and Nikita Khruschev held an impromptu Kitchen Debate on the merits of the capitalist and communist systems.
1960: A U.S. U2 spy plane was shot down in Soviet airspace.
1961: East Germany constructed the Berlin Wall to stop the flood of 3.5 million refugees escaping to the West.
1962: Soviet nuclear weapon placement precipitated the Cuban Missile Crisis.
1969-79: SALT I and the Helsinki Accords were signed during détente.
1980: The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan ended détente. The U.S. hockey team beat the USSR at the Winter Olympics. The U.S. boycotted the Moscow Summer Olympics.

The Cold War: Limited and Proxy Conflicts

Korea, 1950-1953: USSR and People's Republic of China supported communist North Korean invasion of South Korea. UN forces led by the United States fought back to a stalemate at the 38th Parallel.
Vietnam, 1946-1975: Ho Chi Minh led the Viet Minh against the French reoccupation. The French defeat at Dien Bien Phu led to the 17th Parallel divide of the communist North and the Western-backed South, which the United States defended against communist rebel Viet Cong. The southern capital Saigon fell after the United States withdrew.
Middle East, 1973: USSR-backed Egypt and Syria attacked U.S.-backed Israel in the Yom Kippur War.
Afghanistan, 1979-1989: USSR intervened to aid the pro-Soviet side in the civil war. The United States supplied Mujahedeen insurgents. The Soviets withdrew over high military and diplomatic costs.

The Cold War: Western Organizations

1944 Bretton Woods Conference: International Monetary Fund was started for global financial stability. The World Bank was founded to invest in developing countries. There were 188 member states in 2015.
1947 General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT): Lifted barriers to international trade.
1949 North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO): Provided collective defense to 16 Western states. 12 Eastern European states were added after the Cold War. France withdrew in 1966 in favor of an independent nuclear deterrence against the USSR but rejoined in 2009. NATO made up 70% of global military spending in 2010.
1995 World Trade Organization (WTO): Replaced GATT regulating trade and resolving trade disputes.

The Cold War: Eastern Bloc Organizations

The 1949 Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CoMEcon) strengthened international socialist economies by sharing technology and facilitating trade.
In response to NATO, the 1955 Warsaw Pact was created to provide collective defense to the Soviet Union, Poland, East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Bulgaria. It allowed continued Soviet military domination of Central and Eastern Europe.
The 1968 Brezhnev Doctrine allowed the Warsaw Pact to intervene in any socialist country facing hostile capitalist forces. It was retroactively applied to Soviet invasions of Hungary (1956) and Czechoslovakia (1968).

The Cold War: Fall of the Berlin Wall

1980-1989: Solidarity was the 10 million-member non communist labor union of 1/3 of Poland's workforce led by Lech Walesa seeking social reform guided by Catholic teaching-
May 1989: Hungary opened its border with Austria. 30,000 East Germans escaped to the West via Hungary.
August 1989: Solidarity won control of Polish Sejm in the first semi-free election since 1928. Lech Walesa was elected president in 1990.
October 1989: The Hungarian Communist Party passed democratic reforms and scheduled free multiparty elections.
November 1989: Up to 1,000,000 East Germans demonstrated at Alexanderplatz. The Berlin Wall fell November 9 opening travel to the West. The communist government collapsed.
October 1990: Germany reunited.

The Cold War: The Collapse of Soviet Satellite Regimes

November-December 1989: In the Velvet Revolution, 800,000 protestors pressured the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia to resign. Václav Havel became president, and Alexander Dubiek was elected parliamentary speaker.
December 1989: The Bulgarian Communist Party relinquished power. The Romanian army joined protesters to topple Nicolae Ceasescu whose trial and execution was broadcast on TV on Christmas Day.
1991: Communists retained power in Albania in free elections but lost in an election the following year.
1993: The Czech Republic and Slovakia parted peacefully in the Velvet Divorce.
1999-2013: 11 former communist states joined the EU; 12 joined NATO.

The Cold War: The Dissolution of the Soviet Union

1979-1989: The Soviet-Afghan War drained military, economy, morale, and diplomatic influence.
1985: Mikhail Gorbachev introduced Perestroika economic and Glasnost political reforms.
1986: Soviet Chernobyl nuclear power plant had a meltdown.
1988-1990: Gorbachev abandoned the Brezhnev Doctrine and stated the Soviet Union would no longer interfere in satellite states. Eastern bloc regimes collapsed.
1990-1991: 14 states declared independence from the Soviet Union.
August 1991: Communist hardliners attempted a coup. Boris Yeltsin defused the situation and was later elected president of Russia. Gorbachev's power was greatly reduced.
December 1991: Russian, Belarusian, and Ukrainian leaders formally dissolved the Soviet Union and formed the Commonwealth of Independent States

European Union: Formation

1951 Treaty of Paris: France, West Germany, Italy, Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg formed the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) to "make war not only unthinkable but materially impossible."
1957 Treaty of Rome: ECSC states formed the European Economic Community (EEC), or Common Market.
Britain, Ireland, and Denmark (1973); Greece (1981); and Spain and Portugal(1986) joined the EEC.
1992 Maastricht Treaty: 12 EEC members formed the European Union (EU), a single market for the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital. It also led to the common euro currency in 1999.

European Union: Expansion and Reform

EU membership expanded to 28 states: Austria, Sweden, and Finland (1995); Malta, Cyprus, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Czech Republic, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Hungary (2004); Bulgaria and Romania (2007); and Croatia (2013)
2003: There was no common EU foreign policy. The U.S. invasion of Iraq was supported by Britain but protested by France and Germany.
2008: The European Debt Crisis jeopardized EU economic stability.
2009: The Treaty of Lisbon reformed EU structure and created a full-time European council president.
2015: The Greek Debt Crisis threatened the future of the euro.
2016: British voted to withdraw from the EU in "Brexit" referendum.

Russia and Soviet Successor States

Nine former Soviet republics formed the Commonwealth of Independent States to coordinate free trade, finance, and security.
Russia, 1999-present: Vladimir Putin runs an authoritarian regime.
Color Revolutions: Former Soviet foreign minister Eduard Shevardnadze was deposed in the peaceful 2003 Rose Revolution in Georgia. Contested elections sparked the peaceful 2004 Orange Revolution in Ukraine, the 2005 Tulip Revolution in Kyrgyzstan, the 2006 Jeans Revolution in Belarus, and the 2009 Grape Revolution in Moldova.
2014: Eurasian Economic Union (EEU) was founded.

Russian Militarism

Chechnya, 1994-2009: Russia suppressed a Chechen separatist movement.
Georgia, 2008: Russia invaded the contested South Ossetia region. A brief war highlighted the need for modernization and led to military rebuilding.
Ukraine, 2014-2015: Pro-Russian President Viktor Yanukovych was toppled by the Pro-European Union public. Russia intervened, annexed Crimea, and supported pro-Russian separatists in eastern Ukraine.
Syria, 2015: Russia intervened in civil war to protect its Mediterranean naval base and regional influence.

Post-1945 Separatist Movements

Belgium, 1954-present: Flemish movement seeks independence for Dutch-speaking Flanders from French-speaking Wallonia.
France and Spain, 1959-2011: Basque National Liberation Movement (ETA) sought independence in western Pyrenees.
Ireland, 1968-1998: Catholic Irish nationalists of the Provisional Irish Republican Army used terror against Protestant unionists, the British Army, and police in an attempt to unite Northern Ireland with the Republic of Ireland. The troubles ended with the 1998 Good Friday Agreement.
Chechnya, 1994-2009: Russia used traditional force and antiterrorist measures to suppress separatist movement. 130 hostages and 40 separatists were killed as Russian forces retook a Moscow theater seized by Chechens in 2002.

Wars of Former Yugoslavia

1980s: Slobodan Milosevic revived Serbian nationalism. Franjo Tudjman used fascist Croatian Ustase Party rhetoric.
1991: Slovenia, Croatia, and Macedonia declared independence. Serb-dominated Yugoslav forces fought Croatia.
Bosnia, 1992-1995: Muslim leader Alija Izetbegovic sought independence. Serb leader Radovan Karadzic wanted annexation into "Greater Serbia." Serbs conducted ethnic cleansing of Muslims.
1995: 8,000 Muslim men were massacred, and 20,000 women were deported at Srebrenica. NATO bombing of Serbs prompted the Dayton Accords.
1998-1999: The Serbian massacre of Muslim separatists in Kosovo was stopped by NATO bombing. Kosovo won independence in 2008.
2000: Milosevic was overthrown in Serbia and turned over to the UN International War Crimes Tribunal for genocide.

Colonial Nationalist Independence Movements

India: Indian National Congress called for independence by early 1900s. The Muslim League (1906) was led by Muhammad Ali Jinnah. 379 or more were killed in the 1919 Amritsar Massacre. Mohandas Gandhi led a nonviolent independence movement from the 1920s. Britain withdrew in 1947 splitting the region into Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan.
Indonesia: Sukarno led the War of Independence (1945-1949) from the Netherlands. More than 500,000 communists were killed in a massive purge (1965-1966).
Vietnam: Ho Chi Minh led the Viet Minh against French reoccupation. The French defeat at Dien Bien Phu (1954) led to the 17th Parallel divide.
Algeria: The National Liberation Front led the Algerian War of Independence (1954-1962). The French Fourth Republic collapsed (1958) and turned to Charles de Gaulle to lead the Fifth Republic and settle the conflict. 900,000 Euro-Algerians fled to France.

Decolonization

Asia: Indonesia fought the Netherlands for independence (1949). Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos fought France for independence (1954). The handover of Hong Kong (1997) to the People's Republic of China marked the end of the British Empire.
Africa: Ghana became Britain's first African colony to gain independence led by Kwame Nkrumah in 1957. 44 other European colonies were free by 1977.
1961: The Non Aligned Movement was begun by India, Indonesia, Egypt, Ghana, and Yugoslavia to protect the Third World from imperialism. It maintained Cold War neutrality.
53 former British territories are voluntary members of the Commonwealth of Nations committed to democracy, human rights.

4.2 Social and Economic Regulation

The Bolshevik Revolution

March-November 1917: The bourgeois Russian Provisional Government shared power with the Petrograd Soviet workers and soldiers' council.
Alexander Kerensky led the Provisional Government, kept Russia in World War I, and launched an unpopular failed offensive against Germany.
April 1917: Germans transported radical Marxist V.I. Lenin from Swiss exile to Petrograd to foment rebellion. Lenin called for the proletariat to be led by a professional revolutionary vanguard. Bolshevik membership swelled and became the largest party in Petrograd, Moscow.
November 1917: The Bolshevik Red Guards led by Leon Trotsky stormed the Winter Palace. The less-radical Mensheviks opposed seizure of power and walked out of the All-Soviet Congress into "ash heap of history."
The Bolsheviks placed second in the Russian Constituent Assembly free election with only 25% of the vote.

The Russian Civil War

January 18, 1918: The Constituent Assembly met only 13 hours. The Bolsheviks dissolved it and ruled as a one-party dictatorship.
March 3, 1918: Lenin surrendered vast Russian territory to Germany in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk ending involvement in World War I.
1918-1922: Reds led by Leon Trotsky defeated the White coalition of tsarists, conservatives, liberals, and anti-Bolshevik socialists. 7-12 million were killed during the Russian Civil War.
1918-1919: The United States, Britain, France, and Canada intervened against the Reds hoping to bring ally Russia back into World War I.
1919-1921: Polish Józef Klemens Pilsudski won the Polish-Soviet War border conflict.

Soviet Economic Modernization: War Communism

1918-1921: War communism kept the Red Army supplied. Industry was nationalized, the military controlled the rails, food was seized from peasants and rationed, and strikes and private enterprise were forbidden.
Up to 1.5 million "enemies of the people" were executed by Bolshevik Cheka secret police in Red Terror.
1-2 million educated, skilled white émigrés fled Russia.
1921-1922: 6 million starved from drought and the breakdown of the grain rail transport.

Soviet Economic Modernization: New Economic Policy

Serfdom ended in 1861. 82% of the population remained impoverished peasants, even though the Peasant Land Bank let the small kulak capitalist-farmer class emerge by the 1900s. Pre Revolution bourgeoisie were only 2% of the population.
Urban overcrowding was severe with 16 people per apartment in 1904.
Industry was ruined during the Civil War. Production was only 1/7 and agriculture only 1/3 of 1913 levels. Coal was only 25%, cotton only 5%, and iron only 2% of prewar levels. 70% of trains were in disrepair. 90% of wages were paid with goods, not money.
The threat of foreign intervention and the failure of socialist revolutions abroad led to continued militarization of Soviet society.
1921-1928: Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy (NEP). The state controlled the banks and large industry but allowed small private business.
NEP was successful. Economy recovered to prewar levels by 1928.

Soviet Economic Modernization: Socialism in One Country

Lenin died in 1924. The Communist Party General Secretary Joseph Stalin won the leadership power struggle by 1929. His chief rival Leon Trotsky was exiled; he fled to Mexico and was assassinated by a Soviet agent in 1940.
Stalin opposed Trotsky's permanent revolution. By the mid-1920s, Stalin advocated abandonment of global communism for national communism, or "Socialism in One Country" to strengthen the USSR.
1928: The NEP was replaced by a Five-Year Plan with an unrealistic goal of a 350% increase in industrial output to prepare the USSR for conflict with the West.
Socialist Realism art (Worker and Kolkhoz Woman, 1937) depicted optimistic ideal Soviet society and celebrated the Soviet New Man.

Soviet Economic Modernization: Five-Year Plans

The Five-Year Plans used economic central planning and renationalization. Production goals were seen as measures of progress on the path to a communist utopia. Quotas were constantly revised up, and false productivity reports flourished.
The plans relied on forced prison labor. Minor offenses received harsh sentences often without trial to swell the prison population.
1929-1953: 27-29 million people were sent to Gulag labor camps or exiled to settle Siberia or other remote areas. They cut timber and mined 16-18 hours/ day. They also built factories, highways, canals, universities, and subways.
The industrial labor force doubled from 3 million to 6 million workers by 1932.
Workers received pensions and free medical care, day-care, and education. Women gained equal rights and sexual liberation. 75% of Soviet doctors were women by 1950.

Soviet Economic Modernization: Collectivization

1928-1936: 90% of agricultural land, livestock, and farm assets were transferred from private peasant farms to collective farming villages.
The Soviets planned to increase the food supply for urban workers to fuel rapid industrialization. Peasants were allowed to use government-owned tractors and sell excess grain. They projected a 50% increase in agricultural output. It was also meant to destroy the kulak capitalist farmer class.
Collectivization was unpopular with peasants. It was seen as a "second serfdom." Many revolted. Animal herds were slaughtered rather than relinquished.
1932-1933: Collectivization failed. Up to 10 million, including 7.5 million Ukrainians, starved to death in the genocidal Holodomor famine.

Stalinism: The Great Purges

1936-1938: The Great Purge used totalitarian state violence to eliminate Stalin's rivals and "counter-revolutionaries."
NKVD (later KGB) expanded the secret police force and foreign espionage.
The Soviet Cult of Personality portrayed Stalin as "Beloved," "Bold," and "Wise," an all-knowing, all-powerful father figure.
All other senior veteran Bolshevik leaders were executed for conspiring to assassinate Stalin, dismember the USSR, and restore capitalism.
Soviet textbooks and propaganda were rewritten to remove mention of all leaders except Lenin and Stalin from the official history of the Bolshevik Revolution. Photos with purged individuals were doctored.
85% of top military officers were convicted of treason and purged.
700,000-1.2 million were executed. An average of 1,000 people were shot each day.

Failed Democratic States

Poland: Six border wars were fought between 1918 and 1921. Józef Pitsudski's Polish-Soviet War victory denied Bolsheviks the ability to link up with communist forces in Germany and Hungary. Pilsudski seized power in the 1926 May Coup. The regime opponents were sent to concentration camps. The authoritarian 1935 April Constitution shrunk the Sejm parliament's role.
Hungary: Béla Kun's short-lived communist 1919 Hungarian Soviet Republic collapsed when Romania invaded. Miklós Horthy conducted White Terror purge of communists and served as Regent for the kingless kingdom.
Romania: Prime Minister lron Antonescu allied with anti-Semitic, ultra-nationalist Iron Guard party and gained dictatorial power.

1920s Economic Instability

European world market share shrank from U.S. competition. Heavy industry suffered from military production cuts. Tariffs in new states slowed continental trade. Postwar labor unrest sparked strikes in Italy, France, and Britain. The middle class feared communism.
Britain had a 25% fall in economic output and 12% unemployment.
French war casualties caused a labor shortage and low unemployment.
1919: Reparations exhausted German precious metal reserves causing currency devaluation. Printing additional currency ignited hyperinflation. By 1923, US $1 = 4.2 trillion German marks.
1923: France and Belgium occupied the German industrial Ruhr Valley after Germany defaulted on reparations. Nazis rose up in the failed Beer Hall Putsch.
1925: Dawes Plan restarted international business cycle. The United States lent to Germany to repay France and Britain so that they could repay the U.S. banks.

The Great Depression in Western Europe

October 1929: The U.S. stock market crashed. Loans to Europe were recalled, crippling finance. States slashed spending to balance budgets, and high tariffs protected home industries. World trade fell 50%.
Britain: The Labour Party and Conservative Party formed a coalition National Government. Steel, coal, and shipbuilding were hit hard with 70% unemployment in industrial areas and 25% overall unemployment.
France: Left-wing Popular Front coalition under Léon Blum gave workers paid vacation, a 40-hour week, and a 48% wage increase, but inflationary 46% price increase and stagnant industry negated gains.
Sweden: Social Democrats used deficit spending to build public works and pay unemployment, medical care, and old age pensions. Business profits were untaxed to urge reinvestment. Sweden recovered from the Depression and had the world's highest living standard by 1938.

Keynesian Economics

John Maynard Keynes criticized the Treaty of Versailles in Economic Consequences of the Peace (1919). He called it a "Carthaginian peace" and predicted the harsh terms would lead to another war.
General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1935-1936) urged short-term government spending increase during recessions to stimulate the economy.
Keynesian economics became the dominant Western economic theory during the "Golden Age of Capitalism" from the 1940s to the 1973 OPEC oil embargo.
Keynes led the British delegation at the 1944 Bretton Woods Conference, which founded the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank.
2007-2008: The Global Financial Crisis ushered revival of Keynesian theory through British and American fiscal responses.

Austrian Economics

Austrian economics began in Austria-Hungary and shifted to Britain and the United States in the 1930s and 1940s.
It criticized planned socialist economies.
It rejected all government economic intervention and claimed stimulus policies cause distorted, unsustainable bubbles.
Friedrich von Hayek (Road to Serfdom, 1944) warned central planning leads to the loss of individual freedom.
Ludwig von Mises (Human Action, 1949) championed the free-marker as che foundation of civilization.
British Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher (1979-1990) privatized state owned companies, attacked labor unions, and reversed welfare state policies.

Fascist Ideology

Fascist ideology emerged in poor socioeconomic conditions where it sought revival of national past glory.
The State embodied the nation and rallied behind charismatic, heroic authoritarian leaders wielding supreme power. Nationalism was celebrated in quasi-religious displays.
It idealized national unity of racially superior primary ethnic groups and violently suppressed minorities and political opponents.
It rejected Enlightenment ideals of equality, liberty, and happiness. Individuals were "deprived of all useless and possibly harmful freedom."
It glorified youth, fitness, and violence. War brought glory to the State. Fascism "believes neither in the possibility nor the utility of peace."
Prominent parties: Italian Fascists, German Nazis, Portuguese National Union, and Romanian Iron Guard.

Italian Fascism

Two Red Years, 1919-1920: Italy was dissatisfied with the Versailles Treaty. It was hit by high unemployment, inflation, riots, mass strikes, and bandits.
Benito Mussolini's Fascist Party paramilitary Blackshirts fought communists. They were supported by middle class industrialists and landowners.
1922: Victor Emmanuel III made Mussolini the prime minister after the March on Rome. Parliament granted Il Duce emergency powers. Italy was a one-party Fascist dictatorship by 1925.
Italian Fascism embraced radio, film, and modern propaganda.
It supported modernization and corporations.
Mussolini signed the 1929 Lateran Accord with the Catholic Church.
Mussolini dreamed of reviving the Roman Empire. He suppressed an independence movement in Libya, invaded Ethiopia, and annexed Albania.

German Nazism

1923: Adolf Hitler led ultra-nationalist, anti-Semitic, antidemocratic, anti-Versailles, expansionist NSDAP (Nazi) Party in the failed Beer Hall Putsch. He wrote Mein Kampf in jail.
1933: The Great Depression increased Nazi appeal. The Nazis held 1/3 of the Reichstag when Hitler was appointed Chancellor. Reichstag Fire led to Nazi martial law and the opening of Dachau camp to imprison political opponents. The Enabling Act bypassed the Weimar Constitution.
1934: Hitler eliminated intraparty rivals in the Night of Long Knives, assumed the presidency upon Hindenburg's death, and became Führer.
He used propaganda (Triumph of the Will) and denounced Degenerate Art.
He sought Lebensraum (Living Space) for Germany in eastern Europe.
Heinrich Himmlers Schutzstaffel (SS) ran state security and the police.

German Nazism: The Holocaust

1935: The Nuremberg Laws racially classified Jews, stripped them of citizenship, and forbade marriage to Christians.
1938: 32 nations met at the Evian Conference to discuss the crisis of Jews fleeing Nazis, but only the Dominican Republic agreed to accept refugees. 20,000 Jews were arrested, and thousands of synagogues, homes, and businesses were burned in Kristallnacht pogrom organized by Nazi propagandist Joseph Goebbels.
1939-1942: Polish Jews were herded into ghettos. 20% of the ghetto residents died from starvation and disease.
1941-1942: Nazi SS Einsatzgruppen swept the occupied USSR and shot 2 million civilians, including 1.3 million Jews, with the help of local collaborators.
1941-1945: The Croatian Ustase Party was allied with Nazis and was responsible for the Holocaust in Yugoslavia.

German Nazism: The Final Solution

January 1942: Nazi SS officer Reinhard Heydrich hosted the Wannsee Conference to plan 30 million murders, including 11 million Jews
June 1942: Heydrich's death left management of the "Final Solution" to the Jewish Question to Adolf Eichmann who was later captured and executed by Israelis.
March 1942: 75% of Holocaust victims were still alive.
1942-1944: Ghetto populations sent to death camps-Auschwitz, Treblinka, Chelmno, Sobibor, Belzec, and Majdanek-where victims were gassed by diesel fumes and Zyklon B.
February 1943: Only 25% of Holocaust victims were still alive.
1945: There were 11 million total victims including 6 million Jews and 5 million Slavs, Roma, Afro-Germans, disabled, diseased, homosexuals, among others.
1946: The 11 highest-ranked living Nazis after World War II, including Hermann Göring, were sentenced to hang at the Nuremberg Trials.

The Spanish Civil War

1931: Unpopular King Alfonso XIII fled Spain. The Republic proclaimed.
1936-1939: Nationalists led by authoritarian Francisco Franco rebelled against the Republican government led by the left-wing Popular Front.
Nationalists were conservative Catholics, military leaders, landowners, and businessmen aided by Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany.
Republicans were urban and agricultural workers and liberal middle class aided by the USSR and 60,000 (almost half French) foreign volunteers directed by Communist International (Comintern).
France and Britain remained neutral.
Pablo Picasso immortalized the German bombing of Guernica ( 1937).
1975: Franco restored monarchy shortly before his death. Juan Carlos I guided the transition to democracy.

Total War

Total war devastates both military targets and civilian pop
Emerged in French Revolutionary/Napoleonic Wars (" U.S. Civil War (1861-1865). It peaked in World Wir
Tactics included scorched earth, strategic bombing, collateral damage, unrestricted submarine warfare, naval blockades, forced civilian and POW labor.
Waging a total war required complete national mobilization including mass conscription, rationing, government control of the economy (war socialism), full workforce employment in war industries, propaganda, and war bond funding:
After World War Il, nuclear weapons would ensure Mutually Assured Destruction of major combatants thereby limiting conflicts to proxy wars.

Welfare State

Foundations for the welfare state were laid by Bismarck in Germany, the Liberal Party People's Budget in Britain, and the Popular Front reforms in France.
1942: The British Beveridge Report sought remedy for five Giant Evils: squalor, ignorance, want, idleness, and disease.
1945: The British election gave Clement Atlee's Labour Party a mandate to implement a tax-funded cradle-to-grave welfare state.
The welfare state included universal health care, pensions, child support, education, unemployment, maternity leave, and business regulation.
It was also implemented throughout Scandinavia, Germany, France, Spain, Italy, Austria, and Belgium adopted a less-universal Christian democracy.
Conservative British Prime Ministers Margaret Thatcher and David Cameron criticized and rolled back benefits.

The Cold War: Western European Economic Miracle

1945-1975: Economic growth was sustained during the Cold War. West German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer oversaw the Economic Miracle of yearly 9-10% GDP growth. Greece grew 7.7%, and Italy grew 5.8% annually.
The Bretton Woods (1944) system provided stability. Keynesian economics supported growth. The U.S. Marshall Plan (1947) gave $12 billion for rebuilding.
European Coal and Steel Community (1951) integrated French, West German, Italian, and Benelux heavy industry. The Common Market reduced trade barriers.
Agriculture soared from mechanization, chemical fertilizers, high-yield crop varieties, and pesticides.
Cars, TVs, and appliances elevated the standard of living. French consumer spending rose 174%.

The Cold War: Soviet-Bloc Eastern European Economies

1945-1949: 15 million people fled west while the USSR plundered $14 billion of industrial materials. Eastern bloc states adopted Soviet-style Five-Year-Plan command economies, including collectivization and gulags.
The Soviet bureaucracy mismanaged capital, labor, and materials with no measures to control costs, inefficiency, and waste.
Economic growth, standard of living far below West. Consumer goods were increasingly available in the 1960s, but there was still a 10- to 15-year waitlist for a car in 1987. There were chronic housing shortages and poor sanitation
By the mid-1970s, the Soviets saw full employment with a 40-hour workweek and 128-130 days off per year and an extensive social welfare program. Industrial worker pay was equal to that of professionals.

The Cold War: De-Stalinization

1956: Nikita Khrushchev denounced Stalin's crimes and cult of personality in a Secret Speech to the 20th Party Congress. He promised a return to Lenin's principles.
Khrushchev allowed increased freedom of expression and Western cultural exchange.
The gulags were dismantled. Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn's One Day in the Life of Alexander Denisovich (1962) portrayed the brutal prison system.
Stalingrad was renamed Volgograd. The State Anthem of USSR was purged of World War Il-era lyrics glorifying Stalin. Stalin monuments were destroyed. Stalin's body was removed from Lenin's Mausoleum.
De-Stalinization caused confusion in the global communist community and contributed to the 1956 Polish and Hungarian Uprisings.

Stagflation

1970s: The Western European postwar boom ended. Economic growth slowed, and inflation and unemployment rose.
1971: Nixon Shock caused the collapse of the Bretton Woods system as the United States abandoned the gold standard for floating currency.
1973-1975: The New York Stock Exchange had a 45% drop. The London Stock Exchange lost 73% of value, and British inflation rose to 25%. The price of oil rose 400% during the OPEC embargo.
1974: Britain suffered widespread electrical blackouts during a coal miner strike. The 3-day week was introduced to conserve power.
Competition from steel production in newly industrialized countries devastated European and U.S. industrial regions.

The Cold War: Soviet Economic Collapse

1970s: Planned Soviet economy, defense spending, lack of computerization and modernization stagnated economic growth.
Occupation of Afghanistan (1979-1989) drained Soviet military, economy, morale, and diplomatic influence.
1985: Mikhail Gorbachev, the only General Secretary born after 1917, attempted reform to save the communist system.
Glasnost offered greater government transparency. Soviet media exposed poor housing, food shortages, pollution, state crimes, higher standard of living in Western Europe and the United States, and Western popular culture. Nationalism resurged throughout Soviet republics.
Perestroika decentralized the planned economy allowing managerial autonomy, small business ownership, and foreign investment. It was unsuccessful, created chaos, and led to a drop in production.

The Eurozone

The EU is the world's largest economy with 20% of global GDP.
1999-2015: 19 of 28 European Union states adopted the common euro currency. Britain is the largest non-euro EU state.
The European Central Bank in Frankfurt, Germany, sets monetary policy.
The Eurozone is a monetary union but not a fiscal union. Members share common euro currency but have separate taxation and spending policies. Financial decisions requiring unanimity of member states prevented rapid response to fiscal contagion in the 2009 European Debt Crisis.

The Eurozone Crisis

2002-2008: Easy credit encouraged high-risk lending and borrowing.
2007-2008: Credit tightened during the Global Financial Crisis causing a decline of international trade. GDP fell 9.8% in the Eurozone.
Iceland suffered systemic collapse of all private commercial banks.
2009: EU states passed unpopular austerity measures to reduce the strain on national budgets. German Chancellor Angela Merkel, French President Nicholas Sarkozy, and the European Central Bank (ECB) worked to save the euro monetary union.
Greece, Ireland, Portugal, Spain, and Cyprus received bailouts from the ECB to avoid defaults on sovereign debt.
2015: Continued instability in Greece after three bailouts raised possible Greek abandonment of the euro, or "Grexit."

4.3 Existential Uncertainty

The Age of Anxiety

Pessimistic post-World War I intellectuals saw the decline of civilization.
Irish William Butler Yeats cried that "Things fall apart... Mere anarchy is loosed upon the world" in "Second Coming" (1919).
Robert Wiene's German Expressionist film Cabinet of Dr. Caligari (1920) attacked the wartime government's murderous authority.
French philosopher Paul Valéry feared the future in European Civilization and the European Mind (1922).
German historian Oswald Spengler upheld "blood and instinct" and welcomed the "victory of the Caesars" in "Decline of the West" (1922).
The film Metropolis (1927) by Fritz Lang and the novels Brave New World (1932) by Aldous Huxley and 1984 (1949) by George Orwell portrayed social struggles in dystopian futures.

The Lost Generation

Artists from World War I to the Great Depression often produced bleak work that reflected the grim period.
American poet Alan Seeger had "Rendezvous with Death" (1916) at Battle of Somme. British poet Siegfried Sassoon (Counter-Attack, 1918) and German novelist Erich Remarque (All Quiet on the Western Front, 1928) captured the meaninglessness and horror of World War I.
American expatriate authors T.S. Eliot (Waste Land, 1922), F. Scott Fitzgerald (Great Gatsby, 1925), Ernest Hemingway (Sun Also Rises, 1926), and John Dos Passos (USA Trilogy, 1930-1936) lived in Paris. So did art collector and salon hostess Gertrude Stein, painter Waldo Peirce, and dancer Isadora Duncan.
1920s: Berlin cabarets were venues for political satire and dark humor.

Modernism: Literature

French Marcel Proust's 13-part introspective novel In Search of Lost Time (1913-1927) explored memory and perspective.
Czech Franz Kafka's tale of a salesman's Metamorphosis (1915) into a giant insect explored social alienation.
Irish James Joyce's stream-of-consciousness novel Ulysses (1922) tracked Leopold Bloom's wanderings in Dublin on June 16, 1904.
British T.S. Elliot's Hollow Men (1925) explored death's kingdom crying"... the world ends/Not with a bang but a whimper."
British Virginia Woolf Room of One's Own (1929) criticized sexist limitations to women

20th-Century Artistic Movements

Dadaism: Germans George Grosz (Fit for Active Service, 1916-1917), Hannah Höch (Kitchen Knife, 1919), and Otto Dix (Trench, 1923) led the anti war, anti bourgeois, radical left art movement. French Marcel Duchamp's absurd avant-garde Fountain (1917) was a urinal.
Surrealism: René Magritte (Treachery of Images, 1928-1929) and Salvador Dalf (Persistence of Memory, 1931) painted irrational dream-inspired images.
Bauhaus: Germans Walter Gropius and Mies van der Rohe pioneered the clean lines of the 1930s modern, industrial, functional architecture.
Abstract Expressionism: Americans Jackson Pollock (No. 5, 1948) and Mark Rothko (No. 1, 1954) shifted the center of the art world to New York.
Pop Art: British Eduardo Paolozzi (I Was a Rich Man's Plaything, 1947) and Americans Andy Warhol (Campbell's, 1962) and Roy Lichtenstein (Whaam!,1963) had ironic use of kitschy pop culture elements.

Postmodern Contemporary Artists

British Judy Pfaff pioneered installation art. Matthew Ritchie sought to represent the known universe in mixed media. Yinka Shonibare explored race and colonialism.
French Louise Bourgeois sculpture abstract and organic shapes. Pierre Huyghe
explored social topics through film and installation pieces.
German Florian Maier-Aichen digitally altered photographs. Katharina Grosse coated sculptures in psychedelic colors. Ursula Von Rydingsvard's childhood in a Nazi slave-labor camp influenced her sculpture.
Polish Krzysztof Wodiczko projected politically charged images on architectural façades.
Swiss Thomas Hirschhorn made mixed media art on political and social themes.
Yugoslav Marina Abramovié pioneered performance art.

Genre-Defining Music

Austrian music theorist Arnold Schönberg wrote atonal compositions. German orchestral composer Hans Zimmer scored over 150 films.
French: Django Reinhardt (jazz), Édith Piaf (cabaret), Serge Gainsbourg (chanson), Noir Désir (heavy metal), IAM (rap)
German: Kraftwerk (electronic), KMFDM (industrial), Rammstein (hard metal)
Swedish: ABBA (disco), Bathory (Viking metal), Hives (garage)
Icelandic: Björk (avant garde), Sigur Ros (minimalist)
Belgian: Front 242 (techno)

Popular British Music

1960s: Beatles (pop), Rolling Stones (blues), Led Zeppelin (hard rock),
Pink Floyd (psychedelic), Who (power pop)
1970s: Electric Light Orchestra (progressive), David Bowie (glam), Queen (arena rock), Sex Pistols (punk)
1980s: Duran Duran (New Wave), Joy Division (post-punk), Cure (Goth), Smiths (alternative), Stone Roses (Madchester)
1990s: Massive Attack (trip hop), Oasis (Britpop), Blur (grunge), Spice Girls (Europop), Spacemen 3 (lo-fi), Muse (space rock), Radiohead (experimental) 2000s: Coldplay (post-Britpop), Franz Ferdinand (art rock), Arctic Monkeys (indie rock), Gorillaz (hip hop), Amy Winehouse (soul)
2010s: Mumford & Sons (folk), Adelle (R&B)

European Cinematic Masterpieces

Early Cinema: German Expressionist Nosferatu (1922), Soviet montage Battleship Potemkin (1925), German sci-fi Metropolis (1927), French Surrealist Un Chien Andalou (1929)
Cold War Era: Italian Neorealism Bicycle Thieves (1948), Swedish fantasy Seventh Seal (1957), French New Wave Breathless (1960), Italian Spaghetti Western Fistful of Dollars (1964), British sci-fi 2001: A Space Odyssey (1968), Soviet sci-fi Solaris (1972), Italian drama Cinema Paradiso (1988)
1990s: French drama La Haine (1995), British drama Trainspotting (1996), French action The Professional (1994), British crime comedy Lock, Stock and Two Smoking Barrels (1998), Italian Holocaust drama Life Is Beautiful (1997)
2000s: Polish Holocaust drama The Pianist (2002), French romantic comedy Amélie (2001), German World War II drama Downfall (2004), Spanish drama The Sea Inside (2004), Spanish fantasy Pan's Labyrinth (2006)

European Popular Culture

Massive audiences have watched musicians compete in the Eurovision Song Contest televised annually since 1956.
Franco-Belgian comics (Tintin, Astrix, Smurfs) entertain readers.
The Assassin's Creed video game series was developed by French Ubisoft, Tomb Raider by British Eidos, and Grand Theft Auto by British Rockstar North.
European soccer teams compete for the UEFA Champions Cup and FIFA World Cup.

American Cultural Influence

Americanization spread U.S. popular culture. U.S. military presence, the Marshall Plan, and economic dominance influence business practices and cultural tastes. American life was contrasted with Soviet communism.
The French and Dutch resented the United States for the loss of their Asian colonies in the 1940s and 1950s.
Anti-Americanism has been on the rise since the Vietnam War. The 2003 Iraq War was opposed by France and Germany.
2009: 32% of Europeans saw U.S. culture as a negative influence and 26% as positive. 40% said movies and TV are the best U.S. exports. 65% of French, 56% of Swiss, and 52% of Germans said American food is the worst export.
2015: 81% of Russians viewed the United States negatively and saw it as a security threat. Europeans worried about the reach of Google, Facebook, Twitter, and Apple. 7 of top 10 global brands were American, with Coca-Cola #1.

Existentialism

Existentialism, a philosophy that proposes that individuals are solely responsible for finding meaning in life and living it fully, had widespread cultural influence after World War II.
German Martin Heidegger (Being and Time, 1927) wrote about finding meaning in human communication during a finite lifetime.
German Karl Jaspers (Philosophy, 1932) despaired that modern science cannot explain reality and threatens human freedom. Individuals can despair or transcend into authentic existence by a leap of faith.
A historian suffers existential angst in his search for meaning in French Jean-Paul Sartre's novel Nausea (1938).
An emotionally detached, unremorseful murderer reflects on the absurdity of human condition in French Albert Camus's novel The Stranger (1942).

Postmodernism

Postmodernism is a philosophical and artistic movement critical and skeptical of Western civilization and open to subjective interpretations of reality.
British historian Arnold Toynbee (Study of History, 1934-1961) used the term to describe the decline of Western civilization starting with 1870s French avant-garde art and rise of mass culture and mass education.
American Jasper Johns made viewers consider the meaning of an American Flag(1954-1955) in the McCarthy era United States. Blurred lines of mass culture and high art drew viewers into artistic dialogue.
French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss (Savage Mind, 1962) studied non-European cultures and examined the structure of thought common to all humans.

Nuclear Physics

1913: Danish Niels Bohr developed the Bohr atomic model.
1927: German Werner Heisenberg introduced the Uncertainty Principle.
1935: Austrian Erwin Schrödinger studied waves and postulated Schrödinger's Cat paradoxical thought experiment.
1939: German Albert Einstein wrote to American President Franklin Roosevelt to spur the United States to beat Nazi Germany in atomic bomb development.
1942: Italian Enrico Fermi and Hungarian Leó Szilárd developed a nuclear chain reaction for the Manhattan Project.
1945: An atomic bomb was tested in New Mexico. Hiroshima and Nagasaki, Japan, succumbed to nuclear devastation.
1954: CERN nuclear research lab opened in Geneva, home of the world's largest particle accelerator.

Nuclear Weapons

1945: The United States developed an atomic bomb (A-bomb). German Klaus Fuchs spied for the USSR at the Manhattan Project. The Soviets built an A-bomb by 1949.
1952: Britain tested an A-bomb. The United States exploded a hydrogen bomb (H-bomb). Soviets detonated an H-bomb 10 months later (1953).
1960: France tested an A-bomb, built an independent nuclear deterrence against the USSR, left NATO (1963), and tested an H-bomb (1968).
1961: USSR tested the gigantic 50 megaton Tsar Bomba H-bomb.
The U.S. nuclear stockpile peaked at about 31,000 warheads (1967). The USSR stockpile peaked at about 45,000 warheads (1988). Britain and France maintained about 500 each.

Nuclear Limitations

1945-2015: Over 2,000 nuclear tests were conducted globally.
1963: The Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty limited testing to underground detonations.
1970: The Nonproliferation Treaty limited nuclear weapons to the five permanent UN Security Council states (the United States, USSR/Russia, Britain, France, China) and four non-signatory states (Israel, India, Pakistan, North Korea)
1996: The Comprehensive Nuclear Test Ban Treaty banned all nuclear test detonations.
The SALT I (1972), SALT II (1979), Start I (1991), Start II (1993), and New Start (2010) treaties reduced U.S. and Soviet/Russian nuclear arsenals.
2015: 10,000+ warheads remain in service globally.

Birth Control

1890s-1970s: A variety of eugenics programs could be found in the United States, Western Europe, and Scandinavia. 64,000 Americans were sterilized. Nazi Germany sterilized 400,000 mentally or physically unfit and euthanized tens of thousands.
Margaret Sanger opened a U.S. birth control clinic (1916). Marie Stopes worked with the Malthusian League to open a British clinic (1921).
USSR legalized abortion (1920s). Abortion Law Reform Association campaigned to legalize the practice in Britain (1967).
Birth control pills were approved in West Germany (1961), but they remained illegal in Catholic Italy until 1970 and Ireland until 1980.

Reproductive Medical Technologies

1973: German Rudolf Jaenisch made a genetically engineered mouse.
1978: The first "test tube baby" by in vitro fertilization was born in Britain.
1996: British geneticists cloned Dolly the sheep.
2015: Britain legalized three-parent in vitro fertilization.

Religious Response to Totalitarianism

Pope Pius XII (r. 1939-1958) opposed Nazism and communism but has been criticized for not taking stronger action to resist the Holocaust.
German Lutheran pastor Dietrich Bonhoeffer was an outspoken critic of the Nazi regime, euthanasia, and Jewish persecution. He was executed in 1945.
German Lutheran pastor Martin Niemöller opposed Nazi control of churches. "First they came for the Socialists, and I did not speak out... and there was no one left to speak for me." He led pacifist and nuclear disarmament campaigns in the 1950s-1970s.
Pope St. John Paul II (r. 1978-2005) attended an underground seminary in Nazi-occupied Poland. He was the first Polish pope. His 1979 visit to Poland was credited with undermining communist rule by fueling the Catholic-influenced Solidarity movement.

The Second Vatican Council

1962-1965: Vatican II called for spiritual renewal of the Catholic Church. It acknowledged deep social changes in modern life and sought to relate the Church to contemporary culture.
It allowed the use of vernacular rather than Latin, contemporary music and artwork, and greater lay participation in Mass.
It increased the local autonomy of bishops, discarded some clerical regalia, and abbreviated the liturgical calendar.
It reaffirmed the importance of scripture while holding an open attitude about scholarly biblical study.
It encouraged outreach to Protestant and Orthodox Christians and other religions

Christianity in the Modern Era

Liturgical and ecumenical movements revised worship practices and sought reconciliation of Catholic and Protestant Churches.
1910: The World Missionary Conference in Edinburgh coordinated evangelical activities of many Protestant denominations.
The USSR was an atheist state that discouraged and sometimes persecuted religious practice, but 1/3 of Soviet citizens still professed faith.
Many Orthodox Christians migrated to Western Europe and the United States.
Secularism spread in Western Europe where only 1/6 attend service.
1962-1965: The Second Vatican Council reformed the Catholic Church for the modern world.
2013: Pope Francis became the first modern non-European pontiff.

Immigration and Identity

1946: British Prime Minister Winston Churchill called for the union of the European Family. Europeanism emphasizes shared values in secular welfare states, multiculturalism, perpetual peace, and multilateralism.
Euroscepticism is critical of European integration, weakening of nation-states, and the undemocratic and bureaucratic nature of the EU.
1961-1972: Labor shortage led to foreign guest workers program in West Germany. About 4 million mostly Muslim Turkish resident non citizens were living in Germany by 2010.
2008: Immigrants accounted for 19% of the French population-about 1/2 European, about 1/2 North and Sub-Saharan African-causing deep social tension.
2009: EU Blue Card allowed highly skilled non-Europeans to live and work in most EU states.
2015: A refugee crisis of Middle Eastern and African asylum seekers emerged.

4.4 Modern Life

The First World War: Demographic Impact

About 9 million to 11 million combatants and 7 million civilians were killed, and 20 million soldiers and civilians were wounded.
8.5 of 8.7 million French men aged 20-50 served in the war. France had an estimated 1.2 million birth deficit caused by the absence of men. Germany had a 3.1 million birth deficit.
Serbia lost 17%-28% of its population. The Ottoman Empire lost 13%- 15%.
1917-1922: 7 million-12 million killed during Russian Civil War.
1918: The Spanish Flu killed 50 million-100 million, 3%- 5% of the global population.
There were 77 million-130 million total dead from World War I, the flu epidemic, and the Russian Civil War.

The Second World War: Demographic Impact

World War II was the deadliest war in history. 70 million-85 million were killed. 50 million-55 million were civilians including the 11 million killed in the Holocaust: 3 million Polish Jews, 3 million Jews of various other nations, and 5 million Slavs, Roma, and others.
The USSR lost 20 million-40 million, about 14% of its population.
China lost 15 million-20 million, about 3% of its population.
Germany lost 7.3 million, about 8.5% of its population.
Poland lost 5.7 million, about 17% of its population.
1944-1950: 14 million-16 million Germans were evacuated or expelled from Central and Eastern Europe, primarily Poland and USSR.
The postwar Baby Boom followed. Fertility rates almost doubled in some nations.

20th-Century Consumer Culture

Late 1940s-1970s: The European economy grew 4% annually, and some countries grew as much as 12.5%. The "American Dream" spread to Europe.
Swedish per capita income rose 20-fold. West German purchasing power rose 73%. Spanish electricity production grew 2,500%.
Italy: GDP doubled. 9 million moved to the industrial triangle of Milan, Turin, and Genoa. Refrigerator ownership soared from 3% to 94%; washing machine ownership grew from 1% to 76%.
German Oswald Spengler, French Georges Duhamel, and German Pope Benedict XVI spoke out against consumerism.
1997-2001: Credit lending to the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Poland rose 26% per year as consumerism spread to the former communist East.

20th-Century Communications

1915: The first transatlantic radio transmission of speech occurred.
1920s-1930s: British John Baird, Hungarian Kálmán Tihanyi, and Russian Vladimir Zworykin made advances in television.
1925: German Rudolf Hell built Hellschreiber, an early fax machine.
1936: British Alan Turing built an early computer. German Konrad Zuse developed electrical computers in the 1940s.
1955: Transatlantic cable was able to carry 35 simultaneous phone calls.
1957: USSR launched radio-transmitting Sputnik I satellite.
1962: Telstar I satellite enabled transatlantic TV broadcast.
1981: Sweden and Norway built the first mobile phone network.
1989: CERN built the European portion of the World Wide Web.
1998-2012: Finnish Nokia was the world's largest mobile phone maker.

20th-Century High-Speed Transit

1919: French Aéropostale Co, flew to Africa and South America, The British began daily London to Paris flights in a four-seat biplane. The first Newfoundland to Ireland nonstop transatlantic flight occurred.
1928: German Cruf Zeppelin started transatlantic commercial flight.
1929: German Dornier Do X flying boat flew 169 people,
1933: German Hamburg to Berlin 99-mph high speed rail opened.
1939: German Heinkel He 178 was the first jet aircraft; it flew 372 mph.
1944: German Wember von Braun designed V-2 ballistic missiles.
1976: French-British supersonic Concorde flew commercial passengers from London and Paris to Washington, D.C.
1977: Italy started Florence to Rome 155-mph high speed rail.
2020: Paris to Budapest 200-mph high-speed rail is set to open.

1968 Revolts: Eastern Europe

Czechoslovakia: Communist reformer Alexander Dubiek introduced "Socialism with a human face," partially decentralized the economy, and allowed greater freedom of speech and travel during the Prague Spring. The Soviets crushed reforms with 500,000 Warsaw Pact troops.
Poland: The poor economy led to higher-priced meat, higher industrial demands, stagnant wages, and heavy censorship. Widespread student protests were violently suppressed. Anti-Semitic state media labeled protestors Zionists and Stalinists. By 1972, 25,000 Jews fled Poland to escape further persecution.
Germany: Radical students in West Berlin formed the K1 commune. West German communist Red Army Faction terrorists conducted Western police killings, bombings, and assassinations from 1970 to 1998.

1968 Revolts: Western World

New Left Baby Boomers embraced civil rights, feminism, antiauthoritarianism, and anticolonialism and widely protested the Vietnam War.
French students and 11 million workers went on strike and took France to brink of revolution in "Mai 68." Charles de Gaulle was almost toppled.
Students sought removal of ex-Nazis from the government in Germany, protested Franco in Spain, clashed with police in Italy, and attacked Cabinet secretaries in Britain.
United States: M.L. King's assassination triggered riots. Democratic National Convention antiwar protests broken by Chicago Police riot. Miss America pageant drew focus to women's liberation.
Brazilian students protested military dictatorship. Mexican students killed in Tlatelolco Plaza. 1968 Mexico City Olympics were the venue for Black Power against South African Apartheid.

Women’s Rights

1918: Emmeline Pankhurst led British women's suffrage movement. Property-owning women over 30 won the vote. The age was lowered to 21 in 1928.
1939-1945: 800,000 women served in Soviet Armed Forces, mostly medical but also combat. 89 were awarded Hero of the Soviet Union.
1949: French Simone de Beauvoir examined historical oppression of women in Second Sex and began Second Wave Feminism.
1975: The British Sex Discrimination Act, Equal Pay Act, and Equal Opportunities Commission passed.
1984: Lichtenstein was the last European state with women's suffrage.
2001: Rape and sexual enslavement in Bosnian Genocide legally declared crimes against humanity.
2014: Istanbul Convention became the first legally binding European agreement against domestic violence and violence toward women.1907: Finland sent 19 women to Parliament.

Women Leaders

1979-1990: Conservative "Iron Lady" Margaret Thatcher was elected prime minister of Britain. She led business deregulation, privatization, and 1982 Falklands War against Argentina.
1982-1987: Agatha Barbara was appointed President of Malta.
1990-1997: Mary Robinson was elected president of Ireland and expanded the president's role, improved British-Irish relations, and had a 93% approval rating.
1995-1999: Édith Creeson was appointed prime minister of France.
2000-2012: Tarja Halonen was elected president of Finland.
2005-present: Angela Merkel is chancellor of Germany. Called the de facto leader of the European Union, she was named the second most powerful person in the world by Forbes in 2012 and was Time 2015 Person of the Year.

Green Parties

1973: The British Ecology Party supported sustainable industrial development, social justice, nonviolence, and grassroots democracy.
1983: The German Green Party won 5.7% of legislative seats by opposing pollution, nuclear power, and NATO militarism.
1995: A Finnish Green League member was appointed to a cabinet position.
1998-2005: The German Green Party formed part of the ruling coalition government and passed a law to close the German nuclear power plants.
2004: Latvian Prime Minister Indulis Emsis was the first Green state leader. The European Green Party was founded and was the fourth largest party in the European Parliament in 2009.
Greens oppose globalization because of damage to natural environments and local cultures.

Gay and Lesbian Rights

1930s-1940s: 6,000 homosexuals died in Nazi camps. Pink triangles worn by gay prisoners became a gay rights symbol in the 1970s.
1970s: The gay rights movement grew after French lesbians disrupted a homophobic live radio program. Sweden legalized gender-change surgery and removed classification of homosexuality as illness.
1989: Denmark legalized same-sex partnerships.
1991-2014: Bulgaria, Lithuania, Belarus, Moldova, Ukraine, Poland, Latvia, Serbia, Montenegro, Hungary, Croatia, and Slovakia banned same-sex marriage.
2001-2015: Netherlands, Belgium, Spain, Norway, Sweden, Portugal, Iceland, Denmark, France, Britain, Luxembourg, and Ireland legalized same-sex marriage. It passed by 62.1% in the Irish national referendum.
2013: Russia passed an antihomosexual LGBT propaganda law.

Terrorist Attacks

1988: Libyans were held responsible for hijacking and destruction of transatlantic Pan Am Flight 103. 270 were killed onboard and in Lockerbie, Scotland where wreckage fell.
1995: Algerian Islamic terrorists killed eight, wounded over 150 in Paris Métro bombing.
1998: 29 were killed and 220 were wounded by a car bomb in Omagh, Northern Ireland, from the splinter cell of the Provisional Irish Republican Army opposed to the Good Friday Agreement in the single deadliest incident during the Troubles.
2004: 191 were killed and more than 1,800 were wounded in a Madrid, Spain, train bombing by an al-Qaeda cell.
2005: 52 were killed by British al-Qaeda sympathizer suicide bombings on
London mass transit.
2015: Islamic gunmen shot 12 at left-wing French magazine Charlie Hebdo for publication of cartoons depicting Muhammad. The Islamic State claimed responsibility for Paris terror attacks that killed 130.
2016: Islamic State claimed responsibility for bombings in Brussels, the European Union capital.

Anti-Immigrant Movements

1968: British Enoch Powell's Rivers of Blood speech fueled hatred. 1980s-2010s: Islamophobic anti-immigrant right-wing parties grew in France, Austria, Netherlands, Britain, Denmark, Sweden, Finland, and Greece.
1999-2008: Austrian Nazi-sympathizer Jörg Haider was elected prime minister.
2002: The French National Front leader Jean-Marie Le Pen was second in the presidential election. Polls predict daughter Marine Le Pen to win the French presidency in 2017.
2005: French North African immigrants rioted in poor banlieue.
2010: France banned the wearing of burqas and expelled the Roma population.
2011: Norwegian anti-Islamic right-wing terrorist Anders Breivik killed 77 people, primarily teenagers from multicultural left-wing Workers' Youth League.
2015: Tighter European border controls returned due to the African and Middle Eastern Refugee Crisis and Paris terror attacks.