Lecture Notes: Reconstruction to Wounded Knee

Reconstruction and Amnesty Act of 1872

• Amnesty and rehabilitation: Amnesty Act of 1872 extended amnesty to many former Confederates, including James Longstreet. Amnesty means forgiveness, different from a pardon; it covers “anything you might have done.”
• Why Grant supported amnesty: to moderate the Republican Party and wind down Reconstruction while still pursuing a national agenda that included the South. He aimed to bring former Confederates into the Republican framework as the party expanded westward.
• Republican agenda at the end of Reconstruction: focus on banks and railroads, protective tariffs to shield domestic industries, and inclusion of southerners in national policy as western expansion proceeded.
• Railroads as a driving factor: railroads would revolutionize transportation; investors sought to resume construction west of the Mississippi, bringing uniformity to U.S. policy. No federal railroad regulation yet.
• Lobbying for railroad expansion: lobbyists pressed Congress and the Grant administration to open more land for railroads as the country expanded westward.
• Effects on the South: Republican push shifted away from heavy South-centric pressure toward broader national development.
• Jesse and Frank James (outlaw case): Rehabilitation did not reach everyone; some former Confederates, like Jesse and Frank James (and associate Cole Younger), faced punitive reconstruction policies.
• Drake/Drake Constitution in Missouri: Radical Republicans in Missouri enacted the Drake/Drake (disenfranchising) constitution, barring anyone who served in or was associated with the Confederacy from voting or holding professional licenses; even those who merely delivered mail could be barred from public office.
• Consequences of disenfranchisement: extreme punitive measures aimed at curbing Confederate influence in Missouri; such provisions were later repealed about seven to eight years afterward.
• James brothers and postwar activity: James brothers returned to Confederate guerrilla roots, robbing Union banks and railroads under the new legal framework of the era.

Economic Panic, Bond Policy, and Political Fallout (1873–1876)

• 1873 economic panic: a severe depression as Reconstruction neared its end; many banks failed and unemployment rose in northern cities.
• Bond policy and the crisis: Grant’s administration pushed the sale of government bonds to retirees and ordinary investors; this bond-building policy helped retire wartime debt but contributed to economic instability when some bonds later proved worthless.
• Jay Cooke and the bond market: a Philadelphia investor who supported the bond strategy; his influence helped push through the national debt retirement plan but also spurred risky speculation.
• Consequences for the economy: widespread financial distress followed bond devaluations, affecting banks, businesses, and workers.
• 1876 presidential election: contested and one of the closest in U.S. history.
• Candidates: Rutherford B. Hayes (Republican, Ohio) vs. Samuel J. Tilden (Democrat, New York).
• War-footprint in election: Hayes’s faction favored some reconciliation with the South; Tilden carried the popular vote, but a disputed electoral outcome loomed due to issues in several states.
• Contested states and violence: South Carolina (7 electoral votes), Louisiana (8 electoral votes), Florida (noted for contested results); several states faced threats of violence and voter intimidation.
• Slates of electors: Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Texas, Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee were blue on the map, with Florida, Louisiana, and South Carolina presenting two competing electoral slates.
• Constitutional mechanics: no runoff or recount provision in the Constitution; elections are managed by states (federalism).
• Bipartisan investigative commission: seven Republicans, seven Democrats, and one independent formed to investigate returns and recommend a course of action to Congress.
• The 1877 Compromise (bargain): a deal between southern Democrats and anti-Rutherford Republicans to resolve the electoral deadlock.
  • Key concessions: pull out remaining federal troops from the South; consider including a southerner in Hayes’ cabinet.
  • Outcome: electoral votes adjusted in Florida, South Carolina, and Louisiana; Hayes declared winner with approximately $185 ext{ to } 184$ electoral votes (by one vote).
  • Inauguration and secrecy: Hayes was inaugurated in March after a long delay; he was informed of victory only days before inauguration.
• Military leadership during the dispute: Gen. William T. Sherman oversaw the Army; there were plans to use military force to enforce results if needed (Marshal-like control in Washington, D.C.).
• Aftermath: the withdrawal of federal troops enabled the end of Reconstruction and allowed Southern Democrats to regain political control over many Southern states.
• Posse Comitatus Act (1878): Congress passed to restrict the military’s domestic law-enforcement role, limiting the use of federal troops in elections and internal policing after Reconstruction.
• Civil Rights law and judicial review: Congress attempted to enforce Civil Rights protections (public accommodations) aligned with the Fourteenth Amendment, but the Supreme Court struck down such laws in judicial review terms (cited as unconstitutional in certain cases cited in the period).

The Reconstruction Amendments, Debt, and Labor (Post–Civil War Realities)

• The Reconstruction Amendments: Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments, often called the Reconstruction or Civil War Amendments.
  • Thirteenth Amendment: abolishes slavery but enforcement capacity was limited and left to the states; some forms of bondage persisted via debt servitude and convict leasing.
  • Fourteenth Amendment: granted citizenship and equal protection; used to justify civil rights rulings and anti-discrimination measures, though enforcement varied.
  • Fifteenth Amendment: protected voting rights regardless of race for male citizens.
• Lack of enforcement and new forms of bondage: the Thirteenth Amendment lacked a direct enforcement mechanism, enabling the rise of debt servitude and the convict lease system in the South.
• Convict leasing and debt bondage: prisoners leased to private businesses to work for pennies per day; a system described in contemporary scholarship as slavery by another name.
• Representative works: references to scholarly works like “American Siberia” describe convict leasing in Florida and other states, highlighting the long tail of such practices into the early 20th century (and their connection to broader labor and civil rights history).
• End of convict leasing: reforms and public policy changes gradually reduced convict leasing, culminating in mid-20th century federal actions (including executive orders in the Roosevelt era) that began to dismantle such practices.

Western Expansion and the Frontier Ideal (Manifest Destiny, 1860s–1890s)

• Western Expansion and Manifest Destiny: the idea that the United States had a god-given right to expand across the continent; the term often linked to a historical mindset of continental growth.
• Frontier thesis by Frederick Jackson Turner: argues that by the late 19th century the first phase of American growth had closed and a new frontier pushed west to the Pacific, shaping American character and policy.
• Jeffersonian vision and the Louisiana Purchase: early ideas about an agrarian empire of farmers; Jefferson supported expansion to cultivate land, aligning with early American strategy.
• Major land acquisitions before the Civil War:
  • Northwest Territory purchase (1803).
  • Texas independence (1836) and later statehood (1845).
  • Mexican Cession following the Mexican-American War (1848): lands north of the Rio Grande forming states like California, New Mexico, Arizona, etc.
  • Oregon Territory acquisition from Great Britain.
• Pre-war settlers and the Free Soilers: white farmers who opposed slavery on economic grounds, supporting the Republican Party before and after the Civil War; settled California and other western territories.
• Gold rush and mining frontiers: economic incentives drew people west; expansion was accelerated by railroad expansion and land policies.
• Transcontinental Railroad and homesteading:
  • Pacific Railway Act (1862): supported by Congress to build a railroad link from east to west; spurred private investment (e.g., Jay Cooke) and federal support.
  • Homestead Act: granted land to settlers to encourage moving west and farming the land; efforts to populate and stabilize the frontier.
• Native peoples and removal policies: long-standing efforts to move Native tribes away from expanding white settlement.
• Trail of Tears (early movement of tribes before the Civil War): Cherokee, Creek, Choctaw, Seminole, and others relocated west of the Mississippi to Indian Territory (modern-day Oklahoma).
• Fort Laramie Treaty and reservation policy: attempted to organize and confine tribes to large reservations, requiring them to abandon traditional ways (hunting buffalo, roaming, etc.) in favor of farming and settled life; not all tribes complied, leading to resistance.
• Plains warfare and leadership: key leaders included Crazy Horse (Cheyenne), Sitting Bull (Sioux), and Chief Joseph (Nez Perce); they resisted reservation policies and U.S. military campaigns.
• U.S. military leadership in the West: General Sherman (Harsh strategies in the South and later aggressive campaigns against Native Americans); General Philip Sheridan (Shenandoah campaigns; advocated harsh strategies in the West); General George Crook (attempted to use persuasion in some campaigns); General Nelson Miles (took over after Crook; pursued Geronimo and led covert operations).
• Little Bighorn (1876): Custer’s Last Stand; Custer divided his force into three parts, underestimated the Sioux and Cheyenne force, leading to a catastrophic defeat for the 7th Cavalry. Custer’s leadership and ego contributed to the failure.
• Aftermath of Little Bighorn: Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse split from the group; some went to Canada seeking refuge; Crazy Horse was eventually killed in custody after attempts to surrender; Sitting Bull later surrendered and joined Wild West shows before passing away in Canada/USA; was a symbol of Native resistance and dash.
• Gold rush in the Black Hills and treaty violations: discovery of gold led to renewed pressure to open the Black Hills to settlers; the U.S. government faced pressure to renegotiate treaties.
• The Great Sioux War and subsequent campaigns: Sheridan and Sherman pushed hardline military strategies; pursuit of Sioux and Cheyenne across the plains followed, with varying degrees of success.

Geronimo, the Apache, and Covert War in the Southwest

• Geronimo and the Apache resistance: Geronimo emerged as a formidable leader who fought both U.S. and Mexican forces; he was harder to subdue and frequently crossed the border to Mexico.
• Key military figures in the Apache campaigns: George Crook (persuasion and negotiation attempts) and Nelson Miles (conducted covert operations against Geronimo).
• Covert operations to capture Geronimo: Miles and officers (including Lt. Gatewood and Lt. Davis) organized a covert operation to persuade Geronimo to surrender without a large-scale battle; they offered conditions for surrender under a white flag.
• Surrender and imprisonment: Geronimo and his band surrendered and were imprisoned; they were held at Fort Marion (St. Augustine, Florida) for several years and separated from other tribes; Geronimo never permanently returned to freedom.
• Roosevelt and Geronimo: Theodore Roosevelt met with Geronimo; Roosevelt sympathized privately but publicly supported continued captivity; Geronimo remained a prisoner for decades.
• Aftermath for Apache and Native policy: the Geronimo episode underscored the aggressive, coerced assimilation policies and long-term confinement of Native peoples.

The Dawes Act and Assimilation Policy for Native Americans (Late 1880s)

• Dawes Act (Dawes Severalty Act, 1887): aimed to assimilate Native Americans by granting individual allotments of land and encouraging farming; dissolution or erosion of tribal lands into private property; the government promoted assimilation through education and land policy.
• Consequences of the Dawes Act:
  • Loss of tribal lands as parcels were sold to private buyers, banks, and railroads; many Native communities lost their land and autonomy.
  • Erosion of tribal government structures; some communities never regained full self-governance until later in the 20th century.
  • Establishment of Indian schools to assimilate children: attendees were taught English, U.S. history, and codes of conduct; targeted to erase indigenous cultures and languages.
• Unintended consequences: while intended to encourage independence, the Act often led to land dispossession and cultural disintegration, accelerating the loss of tribal cohesion and traditional ways.

The Ghost Dance, Wounded Knee, and the Ending of the Frontier Era

• Ghost Dance movement (circa 1890): a religious/cultural revival among Sioux and other tribes; some followers believed the dance would protect them from bullets and restore their lands.
• Arrest and killing at Pine Ridge: tensions grew as Indian police prepared to arrest Sitting Bull; he was not involved with the movement but was targeted; he was shot during the confrontation.
• Mass response and U.S. military action: Sitting Bull’s followers, including Bigfoot, fled to Canada; U.S. forces pursued them, leading to a major confrontation at Wounded Knee Creek.
• Wounded Knee Massacre (January 1891): U.S. troops, including elements of the Seventh Cavalry and Black soldiers, surrounded the encampment and attempted to disarm the Lakota; a firefight ensued with heavy casualties on both sides; many Lakota died in the village and in the surrounding woods.
• Aftermath at Wounded Knee: mass burial of those killed; suppression of photographs for a time; the event symbolized the end of the frontier era and the decline of Native resistance as major armed conflict in the continental U.S.
• Personnel and legacy:
  • John J. Pershing later commanded Black troops in World War I and had a role in the Wounded Knee period through affiliations with the Seventh Cavalry’s legacy.
  • The 1890 census marked the “closing” of the American frontier, signaling a shift in U.S. policy toward Native peoples from conquest to containment and assimilation.

Key Figures, Terms, and Concepts (People and Concepts Revisited)

• Important leaders and actors:
  • Ulysses S. Grant: U.S. president (reconstruction era) and general who sought a middle path toward reconciliation with the South while promoting a national agenda.
  • William T. Sherman: senior Union general; harsh military approach toward Native Americans in the West; played a role in securing troop movements and military strategy.
  • Philip Sheridan: cavalry general known for total warfare tactics in the Shenandoah and later applied to plains campaigns.
  • George Crook: a Civil War officer who favored persuasion and negotiations with some Native leaders; later involved in the Apache campaigns.
  • Nelson A. Miles: replaced Crook; led covert operations against Geronimo to force surrender and containment.
  • George A. Custer (the transcript refers to George A. Lester): flamboyant cavalry commander of the Seventh Cavalry; his split-division strategy at Little Bighorn led to a disastrous defeat (Custer’s Last Stand).
  • Quanah Parker (transcript names “Juana Parker”): a prominent Comanche leader and son of Cynthia Ann Parker; key figure in late 19th-century resistance.
  • Crazy Horse: Lakota Sioux war leader who fought against U.S. military campaigns in the Great Plains.
  • Sitting Bull: Lakota Sioux leader who resisted U.S. government policy; linked to Ghost Dance era and later to Wild West shows.
  • Geronimo: Apache leader who conducted prolonged resistance against U.S. and Mexican forces; ultimately surrendered and became a prisoner of war.
• Institutions and laws:
  • Amnesty Act of 1872: extended amnesty to former Confederates as part of Reconstruction’s rehabilitation.
  • Posse Comitatus Act (1878): restricted the military’s domestic law-enforcement role.
  • Dawes Act (Dawes Severalty Act, 1887): promoted assimilation via allotments, with significant land losses for tribes.
  • Civil Rights legislation and Supreme Court review: attempts to enforce civil rights protections; several acts were struck down or limited by judicial rulings.
• Concepts and phenomena:
  • Guerrilla warfare: used in Civil War and in some frontier conflicts; the James gang and others were associated with irregular warfare during Reconstruction.
  • Manifest Destiny and Frontier Thesis: ideological framework for western expansion and policy decisions on land, railroads, and Native policy.
  • Convict leasing and debt bondage: post-emancipation labor systems that resembled slavery in practice and had lasting social and economic consequences.
  • The American frontier as a social and economic safety valve: Turner’s thesis framed the West as a pressure release for eastern social tensions and a driver of American character.

Connections, Implications, and Real-World Relevance

• Historical continuity: Reconstruction policies, federal-state relations, civil rights, and Indian policy show the long arc of federal power, constitutional rights, and civil liberties in American history.
• Economic and political incentives: the era demonstrates how economic pressures (panic of 1873, bond market dynamics) and business interests (railroads, mining, and land speculation) shaped policy toward the South and West.
• Ethical debates: assimilationist policies (Dawes Act, Indian schools) illustrate the clash between federal aims and Indigenous cultural autonomy, raising questions about cultural preservation, sovereignty, and the ethics of government intervention.
• Lessons for contemporary governance: the use of commissions to adjudicate disputed elections (e.g., 1877), the balancing of civil rights with federal authority, and the limits of military intervention in domestic affairs remain relevant to current policy debates.

Mathematical and Formal References (LaTeX)

• Electoral vote tally in the Compromise of 1877 outcome: $185\,\text{to}\,184$ (approximately one-electoral-vote difference).
• Timeline anchors: $1862$ (Pacific Railway Act), $1867-1868$ (Fort Laramie era negotiations and reservations focus), $1887$ (Dawes Act), $1890$ (frontier closed by 1890 Census), $1891$ (Wounded Knee Massacre).
• Key sections to memorize: Amnesty Act of $1872$; Compromise of $1877$; Dawes Act of $1887$; Posse Comitatus Act of $1878$; Civil Rights-era policy adjustments and judicial review cases (e.g., Civil Rights Cases, 1883).

Summary of Significance

• The late 19th century was a pivot from reconstruction-era military and political battles toward western expansion, assimilation policies, and a redefined federal role in domestic policy. The era produced enduring tensions between civil rights, federal authority, and state sovereignty, while shaping the United States’ approach to land, resources, and Native sovereignty for generations to come.