8.6 Newly Independent States

Global Shifts and the Proliferation of Newly Independent States

The Post-War Political Landscape ( $1945$ - $2000$ ) * During the late $20^{th}$ century, imperialistic powers transitioned governmental control to former colonies, resulting in a massive increase in the number of sovereign nations. * The total count of independent states rose from approximately $75$ in $1945$ to around $190$ by the year $2000$ . * The Challenge of Partition: As noted by Indian nationalist and philosopher Sri Aurobindo ( $1872$ - $1950$ ), many nations achieved a "fissured and broken freedom." Boundaries drawn by departing colonial powers often ignored local demographics, leading to: * Violent territorial conflicts. * Mass population displacement. * Large-scale resettlement projects. * Economic and Cultural Continuity: Despite political independence, newly formed states often maintained ties with former colonizers through migration to "metropoles" (large cities of former colonial rulers). These migrants sustained economic and cultural links while the new states instituted internal policies to drive development.

The Creation and Evolution of the State of Israel

Origins of the Zionist Movement * The Dreyfus Affair: Emerging in the $1890$ s, the Zionist movement was a reaction to European anti-Semitism, exemplified by the Dreyfus Affair. * Theodore Herzl: A Hungarian Jewish intellectual and journalist, Herzl concluded that Jewish assimilation into European society was failing to guarantee safety or equal opportunity. At the First Zionist Congress ( $1897$ ), he advocated for the establishment of a separate Jewish state. * The Balfour Declaration ( $1917$ ): During World War I, the British government issued this declaration, favoring a "national home" for Jewish people in Palestine, the ancestral land of the Jews. At the time, Palestine was part of the Ottoman Empire and primarily inhabited by Muslim Arabs. * The British Mandate: Following World War I in $1918$ , Britain was granted a mandate over former Ottoman lands. Rising Jewish immigration from Europe and the Middle East sparked protests from Arab residents who feared the loss of land and their traditional way of life.
The Birth of Israel and Post-WWII Realities * The Impact of the Holocaust: The genocide of six million Jews during World War II created worldwide sympathy, providing a powerful impetus for Jewish immigration and the creation of a safe haven. * UN Partition ( $1948$ ): Faced with escalating Arab-Jewish conflict, Britain turned the matter over to the United Nations. The UN proposed dividing Palestine into Jewish and Arab sections. In $1948$ , the Jewish section declared independence as the State of Israel.
A History of Conflict and Peace Efforts * Immediate Hostilities: Upon its founding, Israel (supported by the United States) was invaded by Arab forces from Syria, Jordan (then Transjordan), Lebanon, and Iraq. The Israeli victory led to an armed truce and the displacement of approximately $400,000$ Palestinians into refugee camps. * Major Military Engagements: * The Suez Crisis ( $1956$ ): Israel, France, and Great Britain invaded Egypt's Sinai Peninsula to liberate the Suez Canal, which Gamal Abdel Nasser had nationalized. Under international pressure, the forces later withdrew. * The Six-Day War ( $1967$ ): In a multi-front conflict, Israel captured the Gaza Strip (from Egypt), the West Bank and East Jerusalem (from Jordan), and the Golan Heights (from Syria). * The Yom Kippur War ( $1973$ ): Israel successfully repelled a surprise invasion coordinated by Egypt and Syria. * Diplomatic Key Points: * Camp David Accords ( $1979$ ): Mediated by U.S. President Jimmy Carter, this peace treaty was signed by Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin and Egyptian President Anwar Sadat. * The PLO: The Palestinian Liberation Organization, led by Yasser Arafat, rejected the treaty, demanding the return of occupied lands and independent statehood.
$21^{st}$ Century Complexities * Palestinian leadership split into two factions: Fatah (controlling the West Bank) and Hamas (controlling Gaza). * Israeli security measures, including border controls and economic sanctions, restricted Palestinian movement. * Israeli settlements on occupied lands remained a central point of contention and violence. Between $2000$ and $2014$ , over $7,000$ Palestinians and over $1,000$ Israelis were killed.

Cambodia: Independence, Genocide, and Recovery

Independence from France: Cambodia pressured France for independence in $1953$ . While the royal family initially maintained a non-aligned status during the Cold War, the country was eventually pulled into the Vietnam War.
The Khmer Rouge Regime ( $1975$ - $1979$ ): Under the leadership of Pol Pot, this communist guerrilla organization overthrew the right-wing government. * Radical Communism: Pol Pot followed a Chinese "cultural revolution" model, targeting intellectuals, dissenters, and urban dwellers. * The "Killing Fields": The resulting famine and state-sponsored slaughter claimed more than two million lives, roughly $1/4$ of Cambodia's total population.
Vietnamese Intervention and Modernization: * In $1977$ , Vietnam invaded to support opponents of the Khmer Rouge, eventually taking control and providing some stability. * Vietnamese forces withdrew in $1989$ . A $1991$ peace agreement led to UN-monitored free elections. * Current State: Cambodia became a constitutional monarchy under Prince Norodom Sihanouk, developing a multi-party democratic government and a market economy.

The Partition of India and Pakistan

The Great Divide ( $1947$ ): The British partitioned colonial India into Hindu-majority India and Muslim-majority Pakistan. * Demographics: India's population was approximately $10$ times that of Pakistan's. * Migration and Death Toll: The chaotic partition led to the movement of at least $10$ million people. Between $500,000$ and $1,000,000$ people died in the resulting religious violence.
The Kashmir Conflict: Both nations claim the northern mountainous region of Kashmir. * The Demographic-Political Gap: The majority of Kashmir's population was Muslim, but its leader at the time of partition was Hindu. * Current Territorial Division: * India controls about $45\%$ . * Pakistan controls about $35\%$ . * China controls about $20\%$ . * The tension is exacerbated by the fact that both India and Pakistan possess nuclear weapons.

Women in South Asian Politics

Sri Lanka: Sirimavo Bandaranaike * Became the world’s first female prime minister in $1960$ (in Ceylon, later Sri Lanka). * Took office after her husband was assassinated in $1959$ . * Instituted radical reforms: land reform, restrictions on free enterprise, and changing the country's name to Sri Lanka. * Her daughter, Chandrika, became the first female president in $1994$ , appointing her mother as prime minister again.
India: Indira Gandhi * The daughter of India's first PM, Jawaharlal Nehru, she became leader in $1966$ . * Economic Policy: Implemented a " $20$ -point economic program" to fight inflation and increase production. * The Emergency ( $1975$ ): Amidst economic strife and opposition, she declared a national emergency and jailed rivals. * Foreign Relations: Won a war against Pakistan with military support from the Soviet Union. She was assassinated in $1984$ .
Pakistan: Benazir Bhutto * Elected in $1988$ , she was the first female leader of a majority Muslim nation. * Her father had also served as prime minister. Her rule was marked by economic struggles and corruption allegations. She was assassinated in $2007$ upon returning from exile.

Tanzania and the African Socialist Model

Julius Nyerere: The first president of the United Republic of Tanzania (independent in $1961$ ).
The Arusha Declaration ( $1967$ ): Outlined an egalitarian approach based on Ujamaa (Swahili for "familyhood"). * Key Components: Cooperative agriculture/collective farming, literacy campaigns, and free education. * Goals: Economic independence from foreign aid.
Challenges: Tanzania faced severe economic hardships and conflict with Uganda's leader, Idi Amin. While Nyerere was personally popular, the country struggled with persistent poverty during his tenure.

Metropoles and Modern Migration Patterns

Definition of Metropole: A large city of a former colonial ruler that becomes a hub for migrants from former colonies.
Key Migration Routes: * London (UK): Residents from Pakistan, India, and Bangladesh. * Paris (France): Residents from Vietnam, Algeria, and West Africa. * United States: Residents from the Philippines.
Economic Roles: Migrants often filled essential roles in the medical field, on railroads, in foundries, and at airports, maintaining the vital economic and cultural ties between the new nations and their former colonizers.