Key Concepts for Exam Preparation
Differentiate between Drive Theory and Arousal Theory.
Drive Theory: Proposes that motivation is driven by biological needs, such as hunger or thirst. When an organism is deprived of a basic need, a drive is created to fulfill it.
Arousal Theory: Suggests that individuals seek to maintain optimal levels of arousal. Too little arousal leads to boredom, while too much can cause stress. This theory proposes that motivation is derived from the desire to achieve the right balance of arousal.
Compare Cannon-Bard Theory and James-Lange Theory of emotion.
Cannon-Bard Theory: Claims that physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously but independently.
James-Lange Theory: Suggests that physiological arousal precedes the emotional experience; the emotion is a result of the body's physical responses to stimuli.
Understand the pathways of the Dual Pathway Model.
The Dual Pathway Model proposes two primary pathways that process emotion: the fast pathway (thalamus to amygdala for rapid response) and the slow pathway (thalamus to cortex for detailed processing) when responding to stimuli.
Paul Ekman’s research on emotions: identify key emotions he studied.
Ekman's research identified six basic emotions: happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, and disgust, all of which have universal facial expressions.
Example of Emotional Intelligence.
An example of emotional intelligence is the ability to recognize one's own emotions and manage them effectively, such as calmly resolving a conflict instead of reacting with anger.
Differences in the 3 levels of consciousness: conscious, preconscious, unconscious.
Conscious: Refers to thoughts and feelings that we are currently aware of.
Preconscious: Contains thoughts and memories that are not currently in awareness but can be easily accessed.
Unconscious: Holds desires, wishes, and memories that are not accessible to awareness, often influencing behavior.
Id, Superego, Ego: their functions and differences with examples.
Id: The primal part of personality that seeks immediate gratification (e.g., wanting to eat cake now).
Superego: Represents internalized ideals and moral standards (e.g., feeling guilty about eating cake when on a diet).
Ego: The rational part that mediates between the id and superego (e.g., deciding to eat a smaller piece of cake).
Example of a defense mechanism (e.g., repression).
Repression: A defense mechanism where unwanted thoughts are unconsciously pushed out of awareness (e.g., forgetting traumatic events).
Big 5 Personality Traits and behavioral examples:
Openness: Willingness to try new things (e.g., adopting a new hobby).
Conscientiousness: Being reliable and organized (e.g., planning and sticking to a schedule).
Extraversion: Seeking social interaction (e.g., thriving at gatherings).
Agreeableness: Being compassionate and cooperative (e.g., helping a friend in need).
Neuroticism: Tendency toward emotional instability (e.g., feeling anxious about minor issues).
Example of Locus of Control and Self-Efficacy.
Locus of Control: An individual with an internal locus believes they control their success, while one with an external locus attributes outcomes to outside forces (e.g., luck).
Self-Efficacy: A belief in one's ability to succeed in specific situations (e.g., believing one can pass a test based on previous study efforts).
Carl Rogers' uniqueness: Client-Centered Therapy.
Rogers emphasized a humanistic approach where the therapist provides a supportive environment, allowing clients to explore and realize their potential without judgment.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: identify levels (physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem, self-actualization).
Physiological: Basic needs for survival (e.g., food, water).
Safety: Security and stability (e.g., employment, health).
Love/Belonging: Emotional relationships (e.g., friendship, family).
Esteem: Respect and recognition (e.g., achievement, confidence).
Self-Actualization: Realizing personal potential (e.g., pursuing goals).
Differences between objective and projective personality tests.
Objective tests: Standardized questionnaires measuring specific traits (e.g., MMPI).
Projective tests: Assessing personality through responses to ambiguous stimuli (e.g., Rorschach inkblots).
Situational versus dispositional causes: differences and examples.
Situational causes: Attributing behavior to external factors (e.g., someone being late due to traffic).
Dispositional causes: Attributing behavior to internal traits (e.g., someone being late because they are careless).
Attribution errors and examples (e.g., fundamental attribution error).
Fundamental attribution error: The tendency to overemphasize personal traits and underestimate situational factors when explaining others' behaviors (e.g., assuming a classmate is lazy when they fail an exam without knowing they were ill).
Example of Cognitive Dissonance Theory.
Cognitive Dissonance Theory suggests that individuals experience discomfort when holding two contradictory beliefs (e.g., a smoker knows smoking is harmful but continues to smoke, leading to rationalizations to ease the dissonance).
Sternberg’s Theory of Love: components and types (passion, intimacy, commitment).
Components:
Passion: Intense physical attraction.
Intimacy: Emotional closeness and bonding.
Commitment: Decision to maintain the relationship.
Types of love:
Romantic Love: Passion + Intimacy
Companionate Love: Intimacy + Commitment
Fatuous Love: Passion + Commitment
Consummate Love: Passion + Intimacy + Commitment
Factors influencing helping behaviors and types (e.g., altruism, bystander effect).
Altruism: Selfless concern for others (e.g., helping someone in distress).
Bystander effect: The phenomenon where individuals are less likely to help a victim when others are present (e.g., witnessing someone collapse but assuming someone else will help).
Examples of discrimination, prejudice, stereotypes. Difference between in-group and out-group, and the role of contact hypothesis in reducing prejudice.
Discrimination: Unjust treatment based on group membership (e.g., refusing to hire someone based on race).
Prejudice: Preconceived opinion not based on reason or experience (e.g., believing a stereotype about a nationality).
Stereotypes: Overgeneralized beliefs about a group (e.g., assuming all teenagers are reckless).
In-group: Group with which an individual identifies (e.g., one’s own social circle).
Out-group: Group with which an individual does not identify (e.g., rival teams).
Contact hypothesis: Theory that increased contact between groups can reduce prejudice.
Definitions of conformity, compliance (with examples), and obedience.
Conformity: Adjusting behaviors or beliefs to match a group standard (e.g., dressing similarly to fit in).
Compliance: Changing behavior in response to a direct request (e.g., agreeing to do homework because a teacher asks).
Obedience: Following orders from an authority figure (e.g., a soldier following a command from a superior).