Unit 7

Quote by Tsar Nicholas II (1905): "I shall never, under any circumstances, agree to a representative form of government because I consider it harmful to the people whom God has entrusted to my care."

Internal and External Factors and Change After 1900: What factors contributed to change in various states after 1900?
An intense period of rebellion continued into the early 1900s.
The last Russian tsar, Nicholas II, misunderstood political opposition, resulting in his assassination in 1918.
In the first two decades of the 20th century, authoritarian governments faced rebellions in Russia, China, and Mexico, leading to the establishment of new political orders.
Land-based and maritime empires collapsed under internal and external pressures, birthing a new global order by the century's end.

By the early 20th century, Russia lagged behind Europe, the U.S., and Japan in wealth and power.
Key internal challenges:
- Lack of support for economic growth and education.
- Poor transportation infrastructure.
- Resisted political reform and civil liberties.
Resulting external issues:
- Weakened military influence due to a lack of economic support:
- Crimean War (1853-1856): Defeat against the Ottoman Empire supported by Great Britain and France.
- Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905): Defeat illustrated Russia's weaknesses on the global stage.

Bloody Sunday (January 22, 1905): Workers peacefully petitioned for better conditions; tsar's troops responded with violence, killing about 1,300.
The Revolution of 1905: Strikes and protests led to state repression, with thousands dead or exiled.
Russo-Japanese War: Japan's victory marked the first defeat of a European power by an Asian nation.
World War I (1914): Poorly trained Russian troops suffered catastrophic losses and food shortages.

In the fall of 1917, the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized power and established a communist government.
Their ideology included:
- Collective ownership of production means.
- Abolition of private trade.
- Support for urban workers by redistributing agricultural products.

The Qing Dynasty, in power since 1644, fell to revolution in 1911, resulting in the establishment of the Republic under Sun Yat-sen.

Ethnic tensions due to the Qing's Manchu rulers and Han majority feelings of illegitimacy.
Rapid population growth led to famine due to stagnant agricultural productivity.
Low government revenues due to an outdated taxation system hindered infrastructure maintenance.

China's historical wealth faced threats from growing European imperialism:
- Economy reliant on limited trade, primarily through Canton.
Increased reliance on Western goods contrasted with China's self-sufficiency.

Sun Yat-sen's Principles included:
- Democracy: Government by capable citizens.
- Nationalism: Loyalty to central authority.
- Livelihood: Addressing economic inequalities.
The Kuomintang party, led by Sun, would be significant in future governance despite future conflicts with the Chinese Communist Party.

By the 20th century, the Ottoman Empire, termed the “sick man of Europe,” faced economic decline and fragmentation.
Young Turks emerged promoting reforms, including Turkification, often scapegoating ethnic minorities like Armenians.

Resentment toward European powers' economic dominance fueled alliances with Germany during WWI.
Post-war disassembly led to the establishment of the Republic of Turkey under Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, who enacted significant social reforms to secularize and modernize the nation.

Mexico, under Porfirio Díaz, suffered from a dictatorship hindering land reform, leading to widespread discontent.
Mexican Revolution (1910): sparked by Díaz's arrest of opposition leader Francisco Madero, leading to violent uprisings and land reform efforts.
Key figures included revolutionary leaders Emiliano Zapata and Pancho Villa. Political turmoil persisted (1910-1920), resulting in:
- A new constitution (1917) focusing on land redistribution, universal suffrage, and education.
- Formation of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) in 1929, which dominated politics until 2000.

Quotes by Otto von Bismarck (1888): Anticipation of conflicts emerging from the Balkans.
Escalation of tensions due to:
- Militarism: Military buildup among major powers exacerbated nationalist fervor.
- Alliances: Secret agreements drew nations into conflicts (e.g., Triple Entente vs. Triple Alliance).
- Imperialism: Competition for colonies increased rivalries.
- Nationalism: Ethnic tensions in the Balkans led to the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, igniting the war.

The assassination led Austria-Hungary to declare war on Serbia, triggering a cascade of alliances and declarations until a global conflict ensued.

Major effects included the downfall of empires (Ottoman, Austro-Hungarian, Russian, and German) and the reshaping of national boundaries.
Financial reparations and economic hardships planted the seeds for WWII alongside the Treaty of Versailles.

The Great Depression of the 1930s directly impacted political stability and increased radical politics, including the rise of fascism in Germany.
Cultural movements emerged, and the interwar period was marked by significant ideological conflicts and revolutions across the globe.