College Psych Unit 1
Modern Approaches to Psychology
Structuralism and Functionalism
Foundational theories for understanding psychology's origins
Led to the evolution of modern psychological approaches
Psychoanalytic Approach
Founded by Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
Initial focus on physical ailments, later recognized psychological issues
Introduced the "talking cure"
Emphasis on the unconscious mind:
A depository for unwanted memories, feelings, and drives
Groundbreaking work on dream analysis in "The Interpretation of Dreams"
Proposed three parts of personality:
Id: driven by desire for pleasure and aggression
Superego: conscience that pressures 'doing the right thing'
Ego: mediator between id and superego, operates within societal confines
Reality Principle: Governs the ego and involves considering the realities of the external world when making decisions; it helps individuals delay gratification until a suitable alternative is available.
Pleasure Principle: Governs the id, seeking immediate gratification and satisfaction of desires and urges without consideration for consequences or realities
Influenced by thermodynamics, relating libido to psychological energy
Freud proposed a theory of developmental stages that outlines how personality evolves through various phases:
Oral stage (0-1 years): Focuses on oral pleasures such as sucking and biting.
Anal stage (1-3 years): Centers around toilet training and control.
Phallic stage (3-6 years): Involves the exploration of the body and understanding of gender identities.
Latency stage (6-puberty): Characterized by the dormancy of sexual feelings and a focus on social interactions and learning.
Genital stage (puberty onwards): Involves mature sexual intimacy and relationships as well as the pursuit of sexual energies towards others.
Created theory of defense mechanisms: including repression, denial, projection, displacement, and sublimation, which help individuals cope with anxiety and protect the ego from distress.
Repression: Unconsciously blocking unwanted thoughts and feelings from entering awareness.
Denial: Refusing to accept reality or facts, instead opting to protect oneself from uncomfortable truths.
Projection: Attributing one’s own undesirable feelings or thoughts to someone else to avoid facing them personally.
Displacement: Redirecting emotions from a threatening target to a less threatening one, often resulting in misdirected anger or frustration.
Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable impulses into socially acceptable activities or behaviors, leading to positive outcomes.
Rationalization: Creating a logical justification for behaviors or actions that may be socially unacceptable or irrational, allowing the individual to feel better about them.
Reaction Formation: Exhibiting behaviors that are opposite to one's actual feelings or desires, often as a defense mechanism to cope with anxiety about those feelings.
Regression: Reverting to behaviors characteristic of an earlier stage of development in response to stress or anxiety, as a way to cope with discomfort.
Freud was criticized for lack of scientific objectivity and overstated sexual aggression focus
Behavioral Approach
Emerged as a reaction to psychoanalysis, focusing on observable behavior
Key figures: John Watson, Edward Thorndike, B.F. Skinner
Thorndike: Law of Effect - behaviors producing satisfaction are repeated
Watson's Little Albert experiment: Classical conditioning of fear
Skinner: Operant conditioning - behavior shaped by rewards/punishments
Ivan Pavlov - experiments with dogs, demonstrating how a neutral stimulus can elicit a conditioned response through association (classical conditioning)
Operant vs Classical Conditioning = operant conditioning involves voluntary behaviors that are influenced by consequences, while classical conditioning involves involuntary responses that are triggered by stimuli and associations formed between them. (Pavlov = Classical)
Criticism of behaviorism centers on the neglect of mental states and thoughts
Cognitive Approach
Developed in the 1950s as a reaction to behaviorism
Focuses on mental processes: thinking, perception, memory, decision-making
Key individuals: Jean Piaget, Harry Harlow
Piaget’s Stages of Development:
Sensorimotor Stage (0-2 years): Infants learn through senses and actions; object permanence develops
Preoperational Stage (2-7 years): Children use language and symbols, but think intuitively and egocentrically; struggle with conservation
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11 years): Logical thinking about concrete events; understanding of conservation and categorization; difficulty with abstract concepts.
Formal Operational Stage (11 years and up): Abstract and logical reasoning develops; ability to solve hypothetical problems and understand metacognition.
Cognitive psychologists study thought processes that govern behavior
Claims cognitive approach allows objective measurement of internal functions
Humanistic Approach
Gained prominence in the 1950s as a more positive outlook
Critiques psychoanalytic and behavioral perspectives
Proponents include Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow:
Emphasizes free will and personal responsibility
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs, culminating in self-actualization
Physiological Needs: Basic requirements for human survival, such as food, water, shelter, and sleep.
Safety Needs: Protection from physical and emotional harm, including health and financial security, and a safe environment.
Love and Belongingness Needs: Emotional relationships, love, friendship, and social connections.
Esteem Needs: Recognition, respect, self-esteem, and sense of accomplishment.
Self-Actualization Needs: Realizing one's full potential, pursuing personal growth, and self-fulfillment.
Criticized for optimism and lack of comprehensive explanations for behavior
Sociocultural Approach
Examines how culture, religion, ethnicity, and environment shape individuals
Analyzes influences from family, peers, and societal norms on beliefs and behavior
Biological/Neurobiological Approach
Focuses on how genetics and brain structures influence behavior
Explores impacts of neurotransmitters and physiological factors on mental states
Uses psychopharamocology (drugs for mental disorders) to help patients recover
Advances in brain scanning provide new insights into biological psychology
Evolutionary Approach
Rooted in Charles Darwin's theories of natural selection
Investigates how certain behaviors may enhance survival and reproductive success
Explains human behavior through the lens of evolutionary traits
Biopsychosocial Model
Proposed by George L. Engel in the late 20th century
Integrates biological, psychological, and social factors in understanding health and illness
Emphasizes that environment and perception play critical roles in behavior and outcomes
Summary of Theories and Their Applications
Each theory acts as a lens focusing on aspects of human psychology:
Psychoanalytic: Unconscious influences
Behavioral: Observable behavior and learning
Cognitive: Internal thought processes
Humanistic: Human potential and personal growth
Sociocultural: Influence of societal and cultural contexts
Biological: Genetic and physiological underpinnings
Evolutionary: Adaptive behaviors and survival
Biopsychosocial: Interplay of various factors in health and illness
Domains and Careers in Psychology
Applied Psychologists: Practice direct interventions (e.g., clinical, counseling, school)
Basic Psychologists: Research to increase knowledge (e.g., developmental, cognitive, experimental)
Psychiatrists: Focuses on diagnosing and treating mental health disorders, often using medication and other medical interventions.
Clinical Psychologists: Involves assessing and treating individuals with psychological disorders through therapy and counseling.
Counseling Psychologists: Concentrates on providing support and guidance for everyday life challenges and personal development.
Human Factors Psychologists: Studies how people interact with machines and technology to improve safety and usability.
Industrial-Organizational Psychologists: Applies psychological principles to workplace issues, focusing on employee behavior, performance, and organizational development.
School Psychologists: Work in educational settings to help children with emotional, social, and academic issues, providing assessments and interventions tailored to students' needs.
Biological Psychologists: Investigate how genetic, neurological, and physiological factors influence behavior and mental processes, often studying the brain's impact on behavior.
Cognitive Psychologists: Focus on understanding mental processes such as thought, memory, and decision-making, exploring how these processes affect behavior.
Developmental Psychologists: Study the psychological growth and changes that occur throughout a person’s lifespan, considering physical, cognitive, and social development.
Experimental Psychologists: Conduct research to understand various psychological phenomena through controlled experiments, often focusing on behavior and mental processes.
Psychometric Psychologists: Specialize in measuring psychological attributes such as intelligence, personality, and mental health through assessment and testing.
Personality Psychologists: Study individual differences in personality traits and how they influence behavior, exploring the factors that shape personality across different contexts.
Social Psychologists: Investigate how individuals are influenced by social interactions and group dynamics, studying topics like conformity, group behavior, and social perception.
Educational Psychology: Examines how people learn and develop educational programs to support effective teaching and learning.
Ethical Considerations
Principles underpinning therapeutic practices guided by ethical frameworks such as the APA (American Psychological Association) Code of Conduct.
Types of Psychological Disorders
Mood Disorders: These disorders primarily affect a person's emotional state. Common mood disorders include:
Depression: Characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, and a loss of interest in activities once enjoyed.
Bipolar Disorder: Involves episodes of mood swings ranging from depressive lows to manic highs, affecting energy levels and activity.
Anxiety Disorders: Involves excessive fear or anxiety that interferes with daily life. Examples include:
Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD): Characterized by chronic anxiety, exaggerated worry, and tension about everyday problems.
Panic Disorder: Features recurrent panic attacks that lead to intense physical symptoms and a fear of future attacks.
Personality Disorders: Affects how one thinks, feels, and behaves. Key types include:
Borderline Personality Disorder: Characterized by instability in relationships, self-image, and emotions, often leading to impulsive actions.
Narcissistic Personality Disorder: Involves a pervasive pattern of grandiosity, need for admiration, and a lack of empathy.
Psychotic Disorders: Involve distorted perceptions of reality. The most well-known is:
Schizophrenia: Characterized by symptoms such as hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking, impairing daily functioning.
Eating Disorders (EDs): Focus on unhealthy attitudes toward food and body image. Common types include:
Anorexia Nervosa: Involves extreme food restriction and an intense fear of gaining weight, leading to severe weight loss.
Bulimia Nervosa: Characterized by cycles of binge eating followed by purging to prevent weight gain.
Binge Eating Disorder: Involves recurrent episodes of eating large quantities of food, often quickly and to the point of discomfort, without purging behaviors.
Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders (OCD): Involves unwanted, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) that lead to repetitive behaviors or mental acts (compulsions). Individuals may feel compelled to perform these behaviors to alleviate the distress caused by the obsessions, which can significantly interfere with their daily lives.
Hoarding Disorder: Involves persistent difficulty discarding possessions due to a perceived need to save items, leading to clutter and disruption in living spaces. It is often linked with OCD through obsessive thoughts about losing items.
Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD): Characterized by an obsessive focus on perceived defects in appearance, leading to repetitive behaviors like mirror checking and excessive grooming. It relates to OCD as individuals experience intrusive thoughts and feel compelled to perform actions to alleviate distress.
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)
A neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by challenges in social interaction, communication, and repetitive behaviors.
Symptoms can vary widely among individuals; some may require significant support while others lead independent lives.
Early intervention can improve outcomes, often including therapies such as applied behavior analysis (ABA) and speech therapy.
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)
A neurodevelopmental disorder marked by persistent patterns of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity.
Symptoms can include difficulty focusing, excessive talking, trouble organizing tasks, and impulsive decision-making.
Management may involve behavioral therapies, educational support, and medication to help regulate attention and behavior.