AP Biology Crash Course Summary

• AP Biology Crash Course is designed for quick review and focuses on essential topics.
• It covers changes to the AP Biology course curriculum and exam.

Evolution:

• Natural selection adapts populations to their environment.
  -- Adaption examples: Genetic variation, average beak length of finch
• Population genetics studies genetic variation within a population.

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium:

• Frequencies of alleles remain constant if:
  -- Large population, no migration, no mutation, random mating, no natural selection.
• Equations:
  -- $p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1$
  -- $p + q = 1$
  -- $p$ = frequency of dominant allele.
  -- $q$ = frequency of recessive allele.
  -- $2pq$ = frequency of heterozygous allele.

Microevolution:

• Change in allele frequencies due to:
  -- Genetic drift, bottleneck effect, founder effect, gene flow, mutation, non-random mating, natural selection.

Speciation:

• Allopatric: geographic isolation leads to new species.
• Adaptive Radiation: evolution of many species from common ancestor.
• Sympatric: new species forms within parent population.

Evidence for Evolution:

• Biogeography, fossils, comparative anatomy, embryology, molecular biology.

Origin of Life:

• Early atmosphere: water, methane, hydrogen, ammonia; no oxygen.
• Miller-Urey experiment: inorganic precursors formed organic molecules.
• RNA may have been the first genetic material.

Energy and Thermodynamics:

• 1st Law: energy is conserved.
• 2nd Law: energy transfer increases entropy.
• Free energy is required for organization, growth, and reproduction.
• ATP carries energy.

Photosynthesis:

• Overall equation: $6CO<em>2 + 6H</em>2O + light energy \rightarrow C<em>6H</em>{12}O<em>6 + 6O</em>2$
• Light-dependent reactions: convert light to ATP and NADPH.
• Light-independent reactions (Calvin Cycle): use ATP and NADPH to convert $CO_2$ to sugars.

Cellular Respiration:

• Overall equation: $C<em>6H</em>{12}O<em>6 + 6O</em>2 \rightarrow 6CO<em>2 + 6H</em>2O + Energy$
• Glycolysis: glucose to pyruvic acid.
• Krebs Cycle: produces NADH, $FADH<em>2$, and $CO</em>2$.
• Electron Transport Chain: produces ATP via chemiosmosis.
• Fermentation: regenerates $NAD^+$ in the absence of oxygen.

Biological Molecules:

• Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.
• Water's properties: cohesion, adhesion, high specific heat, universal solvent.
• Enzymes: catalysts that lower activation energy.

Cell Structure:

• Prokaryotic: no nucleus, no membrane-bound organelles.
• Eukaryotic: nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

Membranes and Transport:

• Passive transport: diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis (no ATP needed)
• Active transport: uses ATP to move substances against concentration gradients.

Homeostasis:

• Maintenance of stable internal conditions.
• Involves coordinated systems (nervous, endocrine).
• Negative and positive feedback mechanisms.