Rhetorical Analysis: Prewriting, Argument Structure, and Strategy

Prewriting and Analysis: Steps and Tools

  • The focus for the next week and a half is on the first four steps of writing a rhetorical analysis, before moving on to outlining, drafting, revising, and editing.
  • Prewriting stage (as described) includes:
    • Choosing an article
    • Reading the article
    • Deciding what you want to analyze
    • Analyzing the article's credibility using the CRAAP method
    • Analyzing the argument (taking notes)
  • You will be given tools to search for articles in the next class.
  • The CRAAP method is used to analyze credibility (Currency, Relevance, Authority, Accuracy, Purpose) though not explicitly defined in the excerpt; apply it to assess the article before analysis.
  • The ultimate goal of prewriting is to prepare for a solid argument about the article’s credibility.

Core Concepts of Arguments: What makes an argument effective

  • Arguments in writing do 6 things:
    • A clear and arguable position
    • Necessary background information (context)
    • Convincing evidence
    • Appeals to readers' values (pathos) alongside logical structure (logos) and credibility (ethos)
    • A trustworthy tone
    • Careful consideration of other positions (counterarguments)
  • These elements help analyze a text and determine whether the argument is persuasive.

The Heart of an Argument: From position to argument

  • A position must be arguable; it should reflect at least 2 points of view and be reasonable, supportable, and worthy of consideration.
  • Some claims cannot be argued in an academic sense (opinions like “I hate Brussels sprouts,” or absolute facts like 2+2=4, or beliefs like “I believe in life after death”), but in academic work we focus on claims that can be supported with reasons.
  • The central question for rhetorical analysis is whether the article’s claim is credible and well-supported.

Context and Background: Providing necessary information

  • Necessary background information (context) helps readers understand what is being argued.
  • Context can be important for comparing a position to alternatives and for imagining what constitutes good reasons.
  • A position alone does not constitute an argument; it becomes an argument when you provide reasons to support it.
  • Example given: "Cats are better than dogs" becomes an argument when you add reasons (e.g., they are more self-sufficient and cheaper to maintain, and are cuter).
  • The transition from a position to an argument is achieved by adding reasons.

Convincing Evidence: Supporting your reasons

  • After giving reasons for your position, you must offer evidence to support those reasons:
    • Facts
    • Statistics
    • Testimony
    • An anecdote (a story or example that supports the reason)
    • Textual examples (e.g., quotes from sources)
  • For Project 1, the evidence will typically come in the form of direct quotes from the chosen article.
  • An anecdote does not have to come from direct personal experience; it can be a second-hand example (e.g., “I knew someone who had this experience”).

Appeals to Values and Emotions: Pathos, Logos, Ethos

  • Effective arguments appeal to readers’ values and emotions (pathos) while maintaining logical structure (logos) and credibility (ethos).
  • Be mindful that emotional appeals can manipulate readers and reduce credibility if overused (e.g., clickbait headlines that exaggerate danger or urgency).
  • Use emotional appeals to support the argument, but avoid manipulation that undermines trust.

Counterarguments: Acknowledging and Refuting opposition

  • A robust argument acknowledges likely counterarguments (the counterarguments) and, where possible, refutes them.
  • In the cats vs. dogs example, a counterargument might be that dogs are better for certain uses; a strong reply notes why the original position still holds or reframes the comparison (e.g., viral potential and efficiency).

What is an Argument? A working definition

  • An argument, in the course’s terms, must satisfy three things:
    • It conveys an idea or position.
    • It advances one or more clear claims based on this idea/position, or offers a counterclaim that attacks someone else’s argument. 3
    • It uses reasons and evidence to support its claims.
  • Examples:
    • "I like cats" is not an argument (no reasons or evidence).
    • "I think cats are better than dogs" is a claim awaiting reasons and evidence.
    • A stronger claim: "Cats are better than dogs because they are more self-sufficient, cheaper to care for, and can be more entertaining online (e.g., viral videos)." with supporting data.
  • An argument can be long or short depending on the number of claims, reasons, and evidence involved.

Strategy: How to argue effectively

  • Arguments can be conflictual, but they are also tools for solving problems, weighing decisions, and considering multiple perspectives.
  • Thoughtful arguments help writers plan by generating new perspectives, testing the strength of evidence, and identifying connections or inconsistencies.
  • The act of identifying claims, supporting reasons, and evidence sharpens understanding of what the writing is trying to accomplish.

Preparing to argue: A practical workflow

  • Before you start, gather up-to-date information on your topic and aim to be well informed.
  • Research broadly, including sources that disagree with you; aim for a neutral or objective stance even if you have strong personal feelings.
  • Reading a range of sources helps you understand how others think and can reveal weak spots in your own argument.
  • Example approach (cats vs. dogs): compare affectionate qualities, costs, and other factors; include sources that support the opposing view (e.g., pro-dog sources) to anticipate counterarguments.
  • If you encounter information that challenges your main assumption, you may need to adjust your stance or refine what the argument means.
  • Anticipate your opponent’s counterarguments and plan how to address them in a way that clarifies your own argument.
  • Ground your argument by defining the terms and the grounds of the debate, and frame the claim so the audience can easily remember it.

Position statement and framing: Getting the message right

  • A position statement should be succinct, memorable, and closely tied to the evidence you will present.
  • Deliver the position near the beginning to provide context and organize subsequent points.
  • You can repeat the position to reinforce it as you develop your argument.
  • Example position framed for effect: "Cats are the superior pet because they can go viral with greater efficiency than dogs." A concise supporting line might be:
    • "A cat may have nine lives, but because it can go viral much more efficiently than the competition, they can touch millions of lives."
  • This kind of memorable line helps attract attention and anchors the argument.

Moving forward and next steps

  • The immediate next focus is on exploring how writers from history have built their arguments.
  • Expect discussions of historical models and how to apply them to contemporary topics.
  • The instructor will also address audience-specific considerations (e.g., dog-loving readers) in future sessions.

Ethical and practical implications to keep in mind

  • Emotional appeals should be used to enhance, not manipulate, the reader's understanding.
  • Rely on credible sources and be transparent about the evidence and its limitations.
  • Consider how counterarguments can strengthen the overall argument by showing careful thinking and fairness.

Quick-reference recap

  • Prewriting steps to begin an analysis: 4 core activities plus note-taking on the argument
  • The six components of a strong argument: position, background, evidence, appeals to values, ethos/credibility, counterarguments
  • Turning a position into an argument requires: a claim, reasons, and supporting evidence (at least 3 elements)
  • Evidence forms: facts, statistics, testimony, anecdotes, textual quotes
  • Pathos, Logos, Ethos: balanced use to persuade without manipulation
  • Counterarguments: acknowledge and refute to strengthen credibility
  • Position statements should be clear, memorable, and connected to evidence
  • Preparation involves broad, impartial research and anticipating opposing views