Executive Branch (Government) in Italy

During the First Republic, Italy experienced more than 50 different governments in under 50 years. The average duration of a government was only 10 months.
Reasons for the short duration of Italian governments:
- Political reasons
- Institutional reasons
The question is posed whether the short duration of governments indicates political instability.
The lecture explores whether the traditional weakness of Italian governments ended during the Second Republic.

Multi-party governments, often based on oversized coalitions, were the norm.
Partitocrazia (Partycracy) prevailed: government members felt more accountable to their own parties and party leaders than to the Prime Minister, limiting the government's autonomy.
The DC (Democrazia Cristiana/Christian Democrats) party was a central element of the government but was also highly factionalized.
Party leaders typically did not serve as ministers in the government.

Following the fascist regime, there was a strong fear of a potential return to dictatorship, influencing the Constitution makers.
This is referred to as the «Tyrant syndrome.»
An attempt was made to clearly define and limit the role and functions of the cabinet to prevent future overreach or takeovers.
However, the constitutional text remained relatively concise and somewhat vague.
The Constitution establishes a system of checks on cabinet activity by Parliament and the President of the Republic.

Collegial cabinet model: The Prime Minister serves as a coordinator (art. 95).
Council of Ministers: Consists of the Prime Minister and other ministers (art. 92).
Appointment of Ministers: The President of the Republic appoints the Prime Minister and, based on the Prime Minister's proposal, other ministers (art. 92).
Ministerial Removal: The Prime Minister cannot individually remove ministers.
Cabinet Dependence on Parliament: Explicit confidence vote from both chambers of Parliament is required for the cabinet to maintain power.
Legislative Prerogatives: The cabinet is assigned legislative prerogatives through decrees (art. 76 and art. 77).
Parliamentary Dismissal: The President of the Republic can dismiss Parliament (art. 88), not as a political choice but due to the impossibility of forming a majority.
Parliamentary Regulations: Traditionally, parliamentary regulations were unfavorable to the cabinet.
Autonomy of Chambers: Great autonomy of chambers in setting their own agenda.

Art. 76 Legislative Decrees:
- Parliament approves a law delegating the executive to craft a specific policy.
- This delegation includes:
  - General principles and guidelines
  - A defined time frame,
  - And a clear topic.
    *Patitocrazia (Partycracy) prevailed: government members felt more accountable to their own parties and party leaders than to the Prime Minister, limiting the government's autonomy.
    *The DC (Democrazia Cristiana/Christian Democrats) party was a central element of the government but was also highly factionalized.
    *Party leaders typically did not serve as ministers in the government.
Art. 77 Law Decrees:
- Issued in situations of seriousness and urgency.
- Require ratification by Parliament within 60 days of enactment; otherwise, they become retroactively null.
- The practice of reiterating law decrees up to 23 times was ruled unconstitutional in 1996.
- Omnibus decrees and «Thousand extension decrees» (milleproroghe) are also mentioned.

Post electoral coalition governments:
- Always included the DC party, which was the «relative majority party» (Marradi 1982).
- Oversized majority coalition governments were frequent (Riker 1962).
Low decisiveness of elections:
- No government alternation occurred, only «peripheral turnover» (Sartori 1976).
Crucial role of party interests:
- Party interests rarely allowed a party leader in Palazzo Chigi (the Prime Minister's office), leading to a cabinet on a leash (governo al guinzaglio).
- This contributed to the low life expectancy and limited political autonomy of the cabinet.
Role of the Prime Minister:
- The Prime Minister directs the general policy of the cabinet' (art. 95) but in reality, he/she acts as a mediator among the various parties (and party factions) supporting his/her cabinet in negotiations concerning appointments and policies.

The change in the party system and the emergence of a bipolar pattern of competition has affected the formation, composition, legitimation, and duration of governments.
Pre electoral coalitions:
- A clearer link exists to the winning coalition's political platform.
Electoral (indirect) appointment of the Prime Minister:
- Particularly evident between 2001 and 2011, at least at the beginning of the legislature.
Increased presence of party leaders within the cabinet:
- Prime Ministers are now typically party leaders.
Appointment of technocratic figures close to the Prime Minister:
- Not exclusively party members, maintaining balance within the coalition.
**Increased life expectancy for political cabinets: approximately 2 years.
Perfect alternation: No incumbent coalition has ever been re-elected in office.

A timeline of Italian Prime Ministers is provided, spanning from 1945 to 2021, including:

With parties indicated as:

A list of Prime Ministers and their cabinet party composition from 1994 to 2021:

1994: Berlusconi 1 (FI, AN, LEGA NORD, CCD)
1995: Dini (ministers with no party affiliation); external support granted by PDS, RC, PPI, PATTO SEGNI, LEGA NORD and other smaller parties
1996: Prodi 1 (PDS, PPI, GREENS and other smaller parties); external support granted by RC
1998: D’Alema 1 (PDS, PPI, and other smaller parties, among which two new political formations, UDEUR, splitting group of CCD, and PDCI, splitting group of RC); RC is in opposition
1999: D’Alema 2 (PDS, PPI, DEM, GREENS and other smaller parties); RC is in opposition
2000: Amato (PDS, PPI, GREENS and other smaller parties); RC is in opposition
2001: Berlusconi 2 (FI, AN, LEGA NORD, CCD, CDU and other smaller parties)
2005: Berlusconi 3 (FI, AN, LEGA NORD, CCD, CDU and other smaller parties)
2006: Prodi (DS, MARGHERITA, RC, ROSA NEL PUGNO, VERDI , PDCI, LDP, UDEUR)
2008: Berlusconi 4 (PDL=FI+AN, LEGA NORD)
2011: Monti (ministers with no party affiliation); external support granted by PD, UDC, FLI, PDL.
2013: Letta (PD, PDL, SCELTA CIVICA)
2014: Renzi (PD, SCELTA CIVICA; NCD; UDC)
2016: Gentiloni (PD, AP, others)
2018: Conte 1 (M5S, LEGA NORD)
2019: Conte 2 (M5S, PD, LeU)
2021: Draghi