AP Human Geography Unit 1-7 Notes

Unit 1: Thinking Geographically

  • Space: Geometric surface of Earth; location-defined objects separated by distance.

  • Activity Space: Area of daily activity.

  • Place: Bounded space with human importance; toponym (place-name) assigned when recognized.

  • Regions: Formal, functional, and vernacular.

    • Formal: Homogeneous characteristic (e.g., language).

    • Functional: Nodal regions with a central node.

    • Vernacular: Perceived region based on mental maps.

  • Scale: Object/place relationship to Earth.

    • Map Scale: Ratio of map to real-world distance.

    • Relative Scale: Level of aggregation for examination.

  • Sequent Occupancy: Succession of cultural influences over time.

  • Absolute Location: Coordinates (latitude/longitude).

    • Prime Meridian: 0° longitude.

    • Equator: 0° latitude.

  • Relative Location: Location compared to other places.

  • Site: Physical characteristics of a place.

  • Situation: Place's interrelatedness with other places.

  • Distance:

    • Absolute: Linear units.

    • Relative: Distance decay (interaction decreases with distance).

  • Tobler's Law: Closer places are more related.

  • Friction of Distance: Distance inhibits interaction.

  • Space-Time Compression: Reduced relative distance via technology.

  • Human-Environmental Interaction: Mutual effects.

  • Spatial Interactions: Central places as economic exchange nodes.

  • Central Place Theory: Walter Christaller's hexagonal market areas.

  • Core-Periphery: Relationships displayed by various phenomena.

  • Pattern: Cluster (grouped), agglomeration (purposeful clustering), random, scattered, linear, sinuous.

  • Density: Arithmetic (things per unit area), physiologic (people per arable land), agricultural (farmers per arable land).

  • Diffusion: Spread across Earth's surface.

    • Hearth: Origin point.

    • Expansion: Outward from central place.

    • Hierarchical: From 1st to 2nd order locations.

    • Contagious: Outward to nearby locations.

    • Stimulus: Underlying principle diffuses, creates new products.

    • Relocation: Crosses physical barrier, relocates.

  • Maps:

    • Topographic: Contour lines of elevation.

    • Thematic: Expresses a particular subject.

      • Choropleth: Color variations for themes.

      • Isoline: Data values between points.

      • Dot Density: Dots for feature volume.

      • Flow-line: Lines for movement patterns.

      • Cartograms: Simplified geometries.

    • Mental Map: Cognitive image of landscape.

  • Projections: Distort size/shape; equal-area vs. conformal.

  • Models: Abstract generalizations.

    • Spatial: Common patterns in landscapes.

    • Urban: Similar spatial/economic relationships in cities.

    • Demographic Transition: Non-spatial, population growth.

    • Gravity: Transportation flow calculation.

  • GIS: Spatial analysis and mapping.

  • GPS: Satellite network for radio signals.

  • Remote Sensing: Aerial/satellite data.

Unit 2: Population and Migration

  • Demographic Equation: Births, deaths, immigration, emigration.

  • Birth Rate (Natality): Annual statistic.

    • CBR=Number<br>ewlineofLiveBirthsTotalPopulation∗1,000CBR = {Number <br>ewline of Live Births \over Total Population} * 1,000

  • Death Rate (Mortality): Annual statistic.

    • CDR=Number<br>ewlineofDeathsTotalPopulation∗1,000CDR = {Number <br>ewline of Deaths \over Total Population} * 1,000

  • Rate of Natural Increase (RNI/NIR):

    • RNI = {Birth Rate - Death Rate \over 10%}

  • Doubling Time: 70RateofNaturalIncrease70 \over Rate of Natural Increase

  • Net Migration Rate (NMR):

    • NMR=NumberofImmigrants−NumberofEmigrantsPopulation/1,000NMR = {Number \newline of Immigrants - Number \newline of Emigrants \over Population} /1,000

  • Population Growth Percentage Rate:

    • = {(Birth Rate - Death Rate) + Net Migration Rate\over10%}

  • Total Fertility Rate (TFR):

    • TFR=Number<br>ewlineofChildrenBornWomenAged15to45TFR = {Number <br>ewline of Children Born \over Women Aged 15 to 45}

  • Replacement Rate: TFR of 2.1.

  • Dependency Ratio: Dependents vs. workforce.

  • Demographic Transition Model (DTM): Population change theory.

  • Epidemiological Transition Model (ETM): Development via medical advances.

  • S-Curve: Population growth followed by plateau/decline.

  • Population Pyramids: Visualize population structure.

  • Population Density: Arithmetic, physiologic, population center.

  • Overpopulation: Resource depletion concern.

  • Migration: Interregional, transnational, forced, undocumented.

  • Amnesty Programs: Opportunity for official status.

  • Step Migration: Hierarchy of locations.

  • Chain Migration: Foothold establishment.

  • Life-Course Changes: Moves due to major life changes.

  • Push/Pull Factors: Rural vs. urban attractions.

Unit 3: Cultural Patterns & Processes

  • Culture: Shared experiences, traits, activities.

  • Cultural Synthesis (Syncretism): Blending influences.

  • Architecture: Modern (geometric), contemporary (organic).

    • Traditional: Expresses folk house designs.

  • Housing Types: New England, Federalist/Georgian, I-house.

  • Religious Buildings: Christian, Hindu, Buddhist, Islamic, Judaic.

  • Language: Monolingual, multilingual, dialect.

    • Lingua Franca: Bridge language (English).

  • Major Language Families: Indo-European, Sino-Tibetan

  • Music: Folk music, popular culture.

  • Film & Television: Cultural imprint.

  • Food: Continental, nouvelle, fusion cuisine.

  • Clothing: Cultural sign.

  • Social Interaction: Culturally constructed.

  • Religion: Universalizing, ethnic, doctrines. Animist, Hindu-Buddhist, Abrahamic traditions.

  • Caste System in India: Brahmans, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras, Dalits

  • Islamic States: Theocracy, Sharia, Secular Governance

  • Five Pillars of Islam: Prayers, Creed, Alms, Ramadan, Hajj

  • Folklore: Collected stories, histories, morality tales.

  • Land Use: Farming, residential patterns, land ownership.

  • Nation: Singular culture.

  • Ethnicity: Genetic heritage, political allegiance.

  • State: Single government.

  • Cultural Identity: Self-identification.

  • Race: Physical characteristics (Mongoloid, Caucasoid, Negroid).

  • Mixed Race Cultures: Mestizos.

  • Environmental Determinism: Culture traits defined by geography.

  • Possibilism: Culture shaped by environment.

  • Lebensraum: Living space based on geography.

  • Ethnocentrism: Belief in superiority.

  • Cultural Relativism: Beliefs understood in context.

  • Internal/External Identity.

  • Culture Regions: Bounded space.

  • Cultural Hearths: Origin areas.

  • Cultural Change: Sequent occupance, acculturation, assimilation.

  • Cultural Survival: Protecting indigenous cultures.

  • Cultural Globalization: Diminished local culture.

  • Cultural Diffusion: Trade, colonialism, conflict, migration.

Unit 4: Political Patterns & Processes

  • Units of Political Organization: Country, Nation, State, Nation-State.

  • Sovereignty: Independence, territory, recognition.

  • Multi-National States: Multiple nations.

  • Nationalism: Desire for representation.

  • Stateless Nations: Lack political inclusion.

  • Organizations of States: Federal, unitary, microstates.

  • Autonomous/Semi-Autonomous Regions.

  • Multi-State Organizations: Supranationalism (EU).

  • Spatial Concepts: Territoriality, citizenship.

  • Political Borders: Finite lines, physical/non-physical.

  • Expatriate Populations.

  • Enclave/Exclave.

  • UNCLOS:

    • Territorial Sea: 12 nautical miles.

    • EEZ: 200 nautical miles.

  • Boundary Origins: Antecedent, relic, subsequent, superimposed.

  • Boundary Process: Delimitation, demarcation.

  • Boundary Types: Physical, cultural, geometric.

  • Border Disputes: Definitional, locational, operational, allocational.

  • Frontier: Open territory.

  • Tyranny of the Map: Superimposed boundaries.

  • Territorial Morphology: State shape.

  • Territorial Change: Decolonization, annexation.

  • Capitals.

  • Electoral Politics: Suffrage, gerrymandering.

  • Political Economy: Feudalism, constitutional monarchy, republics, marxist-socialism

  • Geopolitics: Global-scale relationships.

    • Centripetal/Centrifugal Forces.

    • Balkanization.

    • Irredentism.

    • Neocolonialism.

  • Heartland-Rimland Model: Potential conflict areas (Mackinder, Cohen, Kennan).

  • Terrorism: State terrorism

Unit 5: Agricultural and Rural Land Use

  • Primary Economy: Resource extraction.

  • Agriculture Types: Intensive, extensive.

  • Hunting/Gathering, Transhumance.

  • Pastoralism: Seasonal movement of animals.

  • Ranching: Grazing in a single area.

  • Multi-cropping: Variety for backup.

  • Monoculture: Single crop.

  • Mixed Farming: Diverse crops, animals.

  • Subsistence Agriculture: Self-sufficiency.

  • Extensive Subsistence Agriculture.

  • cash-cropping

  • Communism and Agriculture

  • Human Ecology: Interactions with nature.

  • Farming Practices: Crop rotation, multi-cropping (double, triple), irrigation.

  • Aquifers

  • Conservation Agriculture: No-tillage, crop rotation, inter-planting.

  • Sustainable Yield: Balancing production/resources.

  • Non-Food Crops: Industrial, textile, energy.

  • Shifting Cultivation: Slash and burn.

  • Desertification: Denuded grassland.

  • Soil Salination

  • Cultural Practices: Religion, family history, culture, resources.

  • Agricultural Revolutions: First (vegetative/seed planting), Second (technology), Green (hybrids/chemicals), Third (Internationalization/agribusiness)

  • Columbian Exchange

  • Agricultural Production Factors: Genetic engineering, veterinary science.

  • Corporate Agriculture: Agribusiness.

  • Specialized Agriculture: Non-GMO, organic, free-range.

  • Mediterranean Agriculture: Climate crops.

  • Fair Trade

  • Aquaculture

  • Truck Farms

  • Community Supported Agriculture (CSA)

  • Plantation Agriculture

  • Dairy/Milkshed

  • Women in Agriculture

  • Global Systems Of Agriculture

  • Commodity Chains: From raw material to consumer product (Inputs, Production, Processing, Distribution, Consumption).

  • Commodity-Dependent

  • Von Thünen Model: Rings of land use (village, farming, forest, grazing).

  • Cost-To-Distance/Land-rent relationship.

Unit 6: Cities and Urban Land Use

  • Central Place Theory: Market areas around central settlements.

    • Threshold: Minimum people for business.

    • Range: Maximum travel distance.

  • Agglomeration: Clustered businesses.

  • Urban Origins: Resource/transport nodes.

  • Settlement Patterns: Clustered, dispersed, circular, linear.

  • Site/Situation: Physical characteristics/relationships.

  • The Built Environment (schools, housing, etc.)

  • Urban Models:

    • Concentric Zone: CBD, industry, housing.

    • Sector: Corridors for industry/housing.

    • Multiple-Nuclei: Suburban business districts.

    • Galactic City: Decentralized commerce.

    • Latin American City: CBD plaza, spine, zones.

    • Southeast Asian City: Port zone, commercial zones.

    • Sub-Saharan African City: Multiple CBDs, market zone.

  • Urbanization: De facto segregation, redlining, restrictive covenants, racial steering, and blockbusting.

  • Segregation

  • Invasion and Succession

  • Women and The City

  • Urban Economies: Gentrification.

  • Urban Growth

  • Urban Sustainability: Economic and environmental balance.

  • urban transportation, Brownfield remediation, New urbanism developments.

  • Accessibility for low-income citizens

  • Commodity Chain

Unit 7: Industrial and Economic Patterns

  • Economic Sectors: Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary, quinary.

  • Value of goods produced. Agriculture = least valuable, despite lots of farmers in 3rd world countries

  • Farmers in 3rd world participate in cash-cropping on plantations

  • Farming in 1st world = commercial basis

  • Commodity Chain: a system of linked locations and activities engaged in the value-added transformation of raw materials into products for final consumption

  • Many tea growers employ lots of workers in remote, impoverished rural areas. However, the profits are mostly made at the retail side and therefore this system is of concern to lots of organizations

  • Natural Resources: Mining/energy vs. fisheries/timber.
    *Timber and food = most volatile and high in price

  • Manufacturing Value-Added: Durable/Non-durable goods.

  • Resource processing: oil refineries, metals, plastics, chemicals, lumber, paper, food and beverage, concrete and cement, glass

  • Textiles: clothing, shoes and leather products, artificial fibers and thread

  • Furniture: home, office, bedding

  • Appliances: home appliances, commercial equipment, power tools, lighting

  • Transport: automotive, rail, aerospace, shipbuilding, recreational vehicles

  • Health: pharmaceuticals, medical devices, personal care products

  • Technology: home computers, business computing and servers, industrial control devices, phones, television and audio entertainment

  • Services: Intangible products (Low/High-benefit).

  • Service firms have different activitys as part of service
    *Deindustrialization: shift to service economy.
    *Deindustrialization resulted in factory workers losing jobs. Industrial areas have since suffered

  • Investment Value: Services > manufacturing or natural resources.

  • High technology for services

  • Microchip made smaller devices affordable (Desktop computers, hand-held devices)
    *Levels of Economic Development: First, second, third world countries. Also more/less developed countries. NICs.
    *NICs - 3rd world countries shifted focus from agriculture to manufacturing as focus for development - constant infrastructure updates (ports, power, water, railways) - experience population growth and rural->urban migration
    *Technology transfer
    *India's jump to service: Had heritage + educated workforce. High demand for Chinese energy. Coal primary for electricity. High demand for trucks and cars.

  • Asian Tigers (Old/New): Economic Growth and ability to compete with consumers.

  • Building a large manufacturing capacity in Old (Japan/Korea) was result of building free-market against communism. Had factoris + market share in auto and tech in 80s

  • Manufacturing dev from FDI. Cheap labor, resources, envi regulations in 1st world(China, malaysia, vietnam, Thailand)

  • 1997 Asian Economic Crisis = bank crash in China dried up new factoris - Credit crunch: results from banks and investors holding back on industrial loans and investments and investments loans and investments

  • Globalization's impact on the workforce = Toyota and Hyundai didn't employ factory workers
    *The Industrial Revolution began in Great Britain with pop growth. Coal and iron for industry rapidly mechanize.
    *Effects of Industrialization: Shift Pop in surrounding + technological innovation in agriculture spurred Second agricultural revolution = Mechanical agriculture reduced need for farm labor + Factories called for workforce

  • Increase in childfactory labor. Workers organized for raises and benefits.
    *Global Productivity increase + economic hunger for raw materials and technology
    *Measures of Development: GDP, GNI, per capita calculations, HDI, Gini coefficient (income disparity).
    *Developed Theorys: Demographic, Rostow's stages of Growth and negatives (Traditional, Preconditions, TakeOff, Maturity, mass consumption), Dependency, prebesch thesis (LDCs depend on FD and investments from MDCs. Has TNCs), economic imperialism), Breaking Down Cycle, tourism = foreign revenue without exported goods), Free-trade agreement(nafta, EU), free-market reforms (SEZs in china), walletsteins world system.
    *Weber's model = minimization of land, labor/resource+ transport costs
    *Weight-losing: Resources are near Resource location (Seafood packaging, lumbermill}
    *Weight gaining: Factories = relatively close to consumers because finished cost is more bulky
    *Geography: Supply Chain & automobile industry = from parts -> components -> final prod
    Fordist system became dependant of supply chains.
    Retail = depends on cost & revenue on geography. Spatial margin of profitability (Revenue > business costs)

  • Footloose industries are not in ties to anything. Executives are intrested in loction
    *Local development = focuses on