Liberation Theology and 20th and 21st Century Theologies

Liberation Theology and Its Offshoots

Liberation theology inspired various groups within the civil rights movement to explore Christianity as a means of liberation. This led to the emergence of distinct theological perspectives:

Black Theology

Black theology arose from the existential and cultural struggles of black people for dignity, liberation, and flourishing. It aims to liberate non-white individuals from political, social, economic, and religious oppression. Black theology views Jesus Christ as a force of liberation, blending Christian beliefs with civil rights issues raised by the Black Power and Black Consciousness movements of the 1960s. James Cone is a prominent figure in articulating Black Theology, with his works including Black Theology and Black Power and A God of the Oppressed.

Indigenous African Theology

Indigenous African theology gained recognition through the works of Kenyan theologian John Mubiti. Mubiti's writings highlight the diverse tribal and national religions in Africa. These religions, though lacking sacred texts like the Bible, are deeply embedded in people's lives through rituals, oral histories, priests, elders, and kings. Mubiti challenges the perception of African religions as anti-Christian or savage, arguing that such labels were used to justify imperialism and slavery. He promotes the idea that indigenous African theology can coexist with Christianity. Key work: African Religions and Philosophy by John Mubiti.

Native American Theology

The Red Power movement of the 1960s spurred the development of Native American theology. Vine Deloria Jr., a member of the Standing Rock Sioux tribe, emerged as a theologian, historian, and activist for Native American rights. He is known for his critique of Western white Christianity in his book God Is Red. Deloria's earlier work is his manifesto Custer Died for Your Sins published in 1969.

Minjung Theology

Minjung theology originated in South Korea during the late 1970s. The term "Minjung" refers to individuals marginalized from society due to economic, cultural, social, and gender discrimination. This theology identifies biblical texts that resonate with the experiences of the marginalized, with Exodus being a primary source. Minjung theology seeks to understand God's intervention in history, particularly in socioeconomic contexts. According to Minjung theologians, the Minjung are the true creators of values and subjects of history, yet they are oppressed by a ruling minority. They assert that Christian theology must recognize God as the God of the Minjung, whose salvation history is one of liberation from oppressors. This theology interprets God's saving acts as present in the Minjung's situation in Korea, promoted by authors like On Byung Mu in works such as Jesus of Galilee.

Feminist Theology

Feminist theology focuses on advocating for women's leadership and acceptance in theological and ecclesiastical spheres. It critiques the historical domination of women and challenges the dualisms endorsed by Christianity. Feminist theologians analyze biblical texts that support patriarchy. Key figures include Rosemary Radford Ruther with Sexism and God Talk: Toward a Feminist Theology and Mary Daly with Beyond God the Father.

Womanist Theology

Womanist theology emerged in the mid-1980s, led by African scholars Katie Cannon, Jacqueline Grant, and Dolores Williams. It addresses the need for a more inclusive theological framework concerning black women's liberation. Womanist theology encourages black women to embrace their identity, value themselves, and draw inspiration from historical voices to dismantle white patriarchal narratives. It critiques white feminism and emphasizes the importance of social justice for black women. Key works include Black Womanist Ethics by Katie Cannon, White Women's Christ and Black Women's Jesus: Feminist Christology and a Womanist Response by Jacqueline Grant, and Sisters in the Wilderness: The Challenge of Womanist God Talk by Dolores Williams.

Black Feminism

Building on womanist theology, black feminism examines how issues affecting black women in the U.S. relate to women's emancipation struggles globally. It challenges racism within feminism and questions the reliance on black racial solidarity in black political philosophies. Pearl Clayge identifies third-generation black nationalist and radical feminists, observing that black feminist politics and black nationalist politics are not necessarily contradictory.

Mujarista Theology

Mujarista theology emphasizes a preferential option for Latina women and their struggle for liberation. Mujaristas work collectively to liberate themselves within the Latino community, build bridges among Latinas and Latinos, and denounce sectarianism. They believe that God chooses to reveal the divine image in Latinas. The first publication on Mujarista theology, initially called Hispanic Women's Liberation Theology, appeared in the U.S. in 1987. Mujarista theology includes ethics and theology, focusing on liberating action. It emphasizes moral agency and aims to help Latinas understand oppressive structures and transform them. Ada Maria Izzo Diaz is considered the mother of Mujarista theology, with her work being Mujarista Theology.

Asian Feminist Theology

Asian feminist theology emerged as a response to the decolonization of Asia in the 1960s. Early Asian theology, often written by men, tended to focus on traditional Asian cultures and practices, neglecting women's experiences and romanticizing patriarchal elements. The first organized effort to develop Asian feminist theology occurred in the late 1970s with the formation of theological networks and centers. The Conference of Theologically Trained Women of Asia was founded in January 1981, followed by the first Asian women's theological journal in 1982. Key figures include Indonesian novelist Mariano Katapo (Compassionate and Free and Asian Woman's Theology) and Kwok Poo Long (Introducing Asian Feminist Theology and Postcolonial Imagination and Feminist Theology).

Queer Theology

Queer theology is an umbrella term for theological work done by the LGBTQIA+ community. It seeks to challenge traditional understandings of marriage, gender, and God. Queer theology aims to subvert classical Christianity by centering LGBTQ+ Christians and their experiences. Marcella Althouse Reid drew on Latin American liberation theology to interpret the Bible in a way that supports women, queer people, and sex. She proposed a theology that centers marginalized people, including those in poverty and queer individuals. Her works include Indecent Theology: The Queer God. Other proponents include Patrick Cheng, with works such as An Introduction to Queer Theology: Radical Love and From Sin to Amazing Grace: Discovering the Queer Christ.

Transgender and Intersex Theology

Transgender and intersex theology are emerging fields that push theological boundaries further. Christina Beardsley and Michelle O'Brien co-edited This Is My Body: Hearing the Theology of Transgender Christians, which recognizes gender identity as a continuum. Transgender and gender-variant Christians such as Victoria Kolaskowski, Virginia Remy Mullen Cott, Helen Savage, and Justin Tanis are building a body of trans theology. Intersex theology addresses individuals whose biological sex cannot be classified as male or female due to combinations of physical features. Intersex individuals challenge the binary construction of gender in Christian theology and necessitate a reexamination of Christian teachings and images. Susanna Cornwall is a key author in intersex theology.

Other Theological Options

Theology of Hope

Juergen Moltmann and Wolfhart Pannenberg, associated with Yale, developed the theology of hope, which places eschatology at the heart of the gospel.

Process Theology

Process theology, influenced by Alfred North Whitehead's process philosophy, views nature as always in process. God is seen as continually becoming, with God's nature determined by reality. God is involved with all creation, and creation works with God. Key figures include John Cobb, David Griffin, and Bruce Epperly.

Narrative Theology

Narrative theology encourages individuals to find meaning in their past and allows the Bible to tell its own stories. Hans Frei's Eclipse of Biblical Narrative (1974) is a key work in this movement.

The Modern Ecumenical Movement

The modern ecumenical movement dates back to 1948 with the formation of the World Council of Churches, a merger of the Faith and Order movement, the Life and Work movement, and the International Missionary Council. Vatican II's ecumenical impulse contributed to the movement. The World Council of Churches has overseen strides toward unity through the Lima document, Baptism, Eucharist, and Ministry. In 1962, the Consultation on Church Union (COCU) was formed to explore church union, later becoming Churches Uniting in Christ, but without significant outcomes. Bilateral dialogues have also emerged, with denominations such as Disciples, United Church of Christ, Catholics, and Lutherans engaging in discussions. Denominational mergers are anticipated among mainline denominations.

Rise of Pentecostalism

The 20th century witnessed the rise and spread of Pentecostalism, characterized by the practice of speaking in tongues (glossolalia) as evidence of baptism in the Holy Spirit. The Azusa Street Revival in Los Angeles in 1906, led by William Seymour, is a key event, though earlier movements existed in Topeka, Kansas, with Charles Fox Parham. Parham associated glossolalia with baptism in the Holy Spirit. Pandita Ramabai, a Hindu scholar turned Christian, led a Pentecostal revival in India in 1905. Pentecostalism spread globally, often overlaying existing denominations. Many Pentecostals and charismatics hold traditional beliefs on the Trinity, sin, and the Bible's authority.

Bible Translation

Bible translation continues to impact Christianity, contributing to the shift from the Northern to the Southern Hemisphere. Wycliffe Bible Translators, founded in 1934, promotes Bible translation with a focus on inerrancy and accessibility in various languages. This conservative theological approach contributes to the rise of Christianity in the global South.

Christianity in the Global South

The expansion of Christianity in the 19th and early 20th centuries, driven by European and North American missionaries, led to a significant shift. In 1900, 66% of Christians lived in Europe and North America; by 2010, 61% lived in the global South, with 63% of Africans being Christians. Theologically conservative readings of the Bible have led to denominational splits, particularly over biblical interpretation concerning morality, gender, and LGBTQ+ issues. Global South Christians tend to hold conservative views on biblical authority and literalism, with a special interest in supernatural elements. These differences have manifested in splits such as the one in the United Methodist Church over LGBTQ+ inclusion.

Christianity is not monolithic and continues to evolve with diverse theologies and influences, especially in the 21st century.