Test two

Week 7: Ancient Persia

1.Who were the Achaemenids?

The Achaemenids were the ruling dynasty of the Persian Empire. They created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, ruling many different peoples and territories.

2. Who was Cyrus the Great?

Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Persian Empire in the sixth century BCE. He conquered Babylon and was known for allowing conquered peoples to maintain many of their customs and religious traditions.

3. Who was Darius I?

Darius I was a Persian king who strengthened and organized the empire. He improved roads, established a more organized tax system, divided the empire into provinces, and developed a system of administration.

4. Know about Persepolis.

Persepolis was a ceremonial capital of the Persian Empire. It contained impressive palaces and reliefs that displayed Persian wealth, power, and control over different peoples of the empire.

5. What was the Satrapy System?

The Satrapy System divided the Persian Empire into provinces called satrapies. Each province was governed by a satrap, or governor, who collected taxes and maintained order on behalf of the king.

6. Know about Zoroastrianism.

Zoroastrianism was a Persian religion associated with the prophet Zoroaster. It emphasized the struggle between good and evil.

• Ahura Mazda: The supreme god and source of truth and goodness.

• Ahriman: The destructive spirit associated with evil and falsehood.

• Good vs. evil: People should choose truth, good thoughts, and good actions instead of evil.

• Day of Judgment: People would be judged based on their choices, and good and evil would ultimately be separated.

Week 7: Classical Indian Civilization

7. Know about Jainism. What was ahimsa?

Jainism is an Indian religion that emphasizes self-discipline, nonviolence, and spiritual liberation. Ahimsa means nonviolence or avoiding harm to living beings. Jains apply this principle to humans, animals, and other forms of life.

8. Who was Siddhartha Gautama?

Siddhartha Gautama was the founder of Buddhism, known as the Buddha, meaning “Awakened One.” He taught that people could overcome suffering by understanding its causes and following a path toward enlightenment.

9. Know about the Buddhist view of desire and suffering.

Buddhism teaches that suffering is connected to desire, craving, and attachment. People suffer because they cling to things that change or cannot last. By overcoming craving and ignorance, a person can reach nirvana, liberation from the cycle of suffering and rebirth.

10. What was the Eightfold Path?

The Eightfold Path is the Buddhist path toward ending suffering and reaching enlightenment. It includes:

1. Right understanding

2. Right intention

3. Right speech

4. Right action

5. Right livelihood

6. Right effort

7. Right mindfulness

8. Right concentration

11. Know about Theravada and Mahayana Buddhism.

• Theravada Buddhism: Emphasizes the teachings of the Buddha and individual progress toward enlightenment. It became especially influential in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia.

• Mahayana Buddhism: Emphasizes the possibility of enlightenment for all beings and the role of compassionate beings who help others achieve liberation.

12. What are bodhisattvas?

Bodhisattvas are beings who seek enlightenment but dedicate themselves to helping others achieve liberation. They are especially important in Mahayana Buddhism.

13. Know about the Mauryans.

The Mauryan Empire was one of the first major empires to unify much of the Indian subcontinent. It was founded by Chandragupta Maurya in the fourth century BCE.

14. Who was Ashoka?

Ashoka was a powerful Mauryan emperor. After the bloody conquest of Kalinga, he embraced Buddhist principles, promoted nonviolence and moral conduct, and spread Buddhist teachings. He also supported public welfare and religious tolerance.

Week 8: Classical Greek Civilization

15. What was the polis?

A polis was a Greek city-state consisting of a city and its surrounding territory. Each polis had its own government, laws, and customs. Athens and Sparta were two important examples.

16. What was the phalanx, and who were hoplites?

• Phalanx: A military formation in which soldiers stood closely together in rows, using shields and spears for protection and attack.

• Hoplites: Heavily armed Greek foot soldiers who fought in the phalanx.

The phalanx depended on discipline and teamwork.

17. Why were triremes important?

Triremes were fast Greek warships powered mainly by rows of oars. They were important for naval warfare, trade protection, and defending Greek city-states. Athens used its powerful navy during the Greek-Persian Wars.

18. Know about Athenian democracy. What was the Assembly?

Athenian democracy allowed eligible male citizens to participate directly in government rather than simply electing representatives.

The Assembly was a gathering where eligible citizens debated and voted on laws, policies, and important public decisions. Women, enslaved people, and foreign residents were excluded from citizenship and political participation.

19. Know about Sparta. Who were helots?

Sparta was a Greek city-state known for its military-focused society and strict discipline. Spartan citizens trained for warfare and were expected to serve the state.

Helots were a largely unfree population, especially in Messenia, forced to work the land and provide agricultural produce for Spartan citizens. Their labor supported Sparta's military lifestyle, and their resistance was a constant concern for the Spartan government.

20. What was the Lycurgan Constitution?

The Lycurgan Constitution was the traditional system of laws and institutions associated with the legendary Spartan lawgiver Lycurgus. It emphasized military discipline, obedience, social stability, and the preservation of Sparta's political system.

21. Know about the Greek-Persian Wars.

The Greek-Persian Wars were conflicts between the Persian Empire and Greek city-states in the early fifth century BCE.

Important events included:

• Battle of Marathon (490 BCE): The Athenians defeated a Persian invasion force.

• Battle of Thermopylae (480 BCE): A small Greek force, famously including Spartans, resisted the Persian army before being defeated.

• Battle of Salamis (480 BCE): The Greek navy defeated the Persian fleet.

• Battle of Plataea (479 BCE): Greek forces defeated the Persians in a major land battle.

Why they matter: The Greek victories preserved the independence of many Greek city-states and strengthened Athens' power and naval influence.

22. What was the Delian League?

The Delian League was an alliance of Greek city-states led by Athens, originally formed to protect against future Persian attacks. Members contributed ships or money.

Over time, Athens gained greater control over the alliance and used its resources to strengthen its own power. This created resentment among other Greek city-states.

23. What was the Peloponnesian War?

The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE) was fought mainly between Athens and its allies and Sparta and its allies.

• Athens relied heavily on its navy and trade.

• Sparta relied on its land army.

• Sparta eventually won with assistance from Persia.

The war weakened Athens and many other Greek city-states, making Greece more vulnerable to later Macedonian expansion.

24. Who was Socrates?

Socrates was an Athenian philosopher who taught through questioning. His method challenged people to examine their beliefs and define concepts such as justice and virtue. He was convicted of impiety and corrupting the youth and was executed in 399 BCE.

25. Who was Plato?

Plato was a student of Socrates and the founder of the Academy in Athens. He wrote philosophical dialogues and explored justice, knowledge, government, and the ideal state. His work The Republic discusses an ideal form of government ruled by philosopher-kings.

26. Who was Aristotle?

Aristotle was a student of Plato and a teacher of Alexander the Great. He studied subjects including logic, biology, ethics, politics, and natural science. He emphasized observation, classification, and systematic reasoning.

Week 8: Hellenistic Empires

27. What was Hellenistic culture?

Hellenistic culture developed after the conquests of Alexander the Great. It combined Greek language and traditions with elements of Egyptian, Persian, and other local cultures.

Greek became a widely used language across many eastern Mediterranean regions, and cities became centers of trade, education, science, and cultural exchange.

28. Know about Macedon.

Macedon was a kingdom north of the traditional Greek city-states. Under Philip II, it became a dominant military power and brought much of Greece under its influence.

29. Who was Philip II?

Philip II was the king of Macedon and Alexander the Great's father. He strengthened the Macedonian army, including its use of the long pike called the sarissa, and expanded Macedonian power over Greece.

30. Know about Alexander the Great.

Alexander the Great was the king of Macedon who conquered the Persian Empire and created a vast empire extending from Greece and Egypt into parts of Central and South Asia.

• Conquest of Persia: Alexander defeated Persian King Darius III and took control of major Persian territories.

• Egypt: Egyptians accepted Alexander as a ruler, and he was recognized as pharaoh. He founded Alexandria in Egypt.

• Cultural impact: His conquests spread Greek language and culture while encouraging cultural blending.

• After his death: His generals fought over his empire, which eventually divided into several Hellenistic kingdoms.

31. Who were the Antigonids?

The Antigonids were a dynasty that ruled Macedon after Alexander the Great's death. They were one of the major successor dynasties that emerged from the breakup of Alexander's empire.

32. What was the Ptolemaic Empire?

The Ptolemaic Empire was a Hellenistic kingdom based in Egypt, founded by Ptolemy I, one of Alexander's generals. Its rulers combined Greek and Egyptian traditions. Cleopatra VII was its last active ruler before Rome took control of Egypt in 30 BCE.

33. What was important about Alexandria?

Alexandria, founded by Alexander in Egypt, became one of the most important cities of the Hellenistic world. It was a major center of trade, learning, and cultural exchange.

It was famous for the Library of Alexandria, associated with collecting and studying knowledge from many cultures, and the Lighthouse of Alexandria, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

Week 9: The Roman Republic

34. Know about the city of Rome.

Rome developed into a major city on the Italian Peninsula. According to Roman tradition, it was founded in 753 BCE. Its location helped it expand through trade, agriculture, and military conquest.

35. Why was the Tiber River important?

The Tiber River provided water, supported agriculture, and helped with transportation and trade. Rome's location near the river and not far from the Mediterranean Sea helped it become an important commercial and political center.

36. Know about plebeians and patricians.

• Patricians: Members of Rome's traditional aristocratic families, who initially held much of the political power.

• Plebeians: Common citizens, including farmers, artisans, and merchants, who struggled for greater political rights.

The conflict between these groups, known as the Conflict of the Orders, gradually led to greater political rights for plebeians.

37. What was the Law of the Twelve Tables?

The Law of the Twelve Tables was Rome's earliest major written code of law, traditionally dated to around 451–450 BCE. It made important legal rules public rather than leaving them solely to elite interpretation.

It was an important step toward establishing a more formal and publicly known legal system, although it did not create equality between all social groups.

38. What were the Punic Wars?

The Punic Wars were three major wars between Rome and Carthage fought between 264 and 146 BCE.

• First Punic War (264–241 BCE): Rome defeated Carthage and gained control of Sicily.

• Second Punic War (218–201 BCE): Carthaginian general Hannibal invaded Italy, famously crossing the Alps with his army. Rome eventually defeated Carthage.

• Third Punic War (149–146 BCE): Rome destroyed Carthage.

39. Why was Carthage important? What happened to the city and its inhabitants?

Carthage was a powerful North African city and commercial empire that competed with Rome for control of trade and territory in the western Mediterranean.

In 146 BCE, at the end of the Third Punic War, Rome destroyed Carthage. Many inhabitants were killed or enslaved. Rome later established a new Roman city at the site.

Week 9: The Roman Empire

40. Who were Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus? What reforms did they support?

Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus were Roman brothers and political reformers who served as tribunes during the second century BCE.

They supported reforms intended to address inequality and help poorer Roman citizens.

• Tiberius Gracchus: Supported land reform that would redistribute public land to poorer citizens.

• Gaius Gracchus: Continued reform efforts and supported measures involving grain distribution, colonies, and the rights of some non-Roman Italians.

Both faced strong opposition from wealthy senators. Their violent deaths showed how political conflict was destabilizing the Roman Republic.

41. Who was Julius Caesar?

Julius Caesar was a Roman general and politician who gained enormous power through military victories, especially his conquest of Gaul. His conflict with the Senate and rival Pompey led to civil war.

Caesar defeated his rivals and became Rome's dominant political leader.

42. Know about Julius Caesar's reforms.

Caesar introduced reforms that included:

• Reforming the calendar, creating the basis of the Julian calendar.

• Establishing colonies and settling some veterans and poorer citizens.

• Expanding the Senate and changing aspects of government administration.

• Granting Roman citizenship to additional people in certain communities.

• Introducing public and administrative reforms.

His concentration of power alarmed some senators who believed he threatened the Republic.

43. What does “Dictator Perpetuus” mean?

Dictator Perpetuus means “dictator in perpetuity” or “dictator for life.” Caesar received this title in 44 BCE. Some senators feared that he intended to become a king, and a group of conspirators assassinated him on March 15, 44 BCE, known as the Ides of March.

His death did not restore the Republic. Instead, further civil wars eventually led to rule by emperors.

44. Who was Augustus?

Augustus was the title adopted by Octavian, Julius Caesar's adopted heir. After defeating his rivals, he became Rome's first emperor, traditionally beginning his rule in 27 BCE.

He maintained the appearance of republican government while holding the most important powers. His rule began a long period of relative stability known as the Pax Romana.

45. What was the “Cult of the Emperor”?

The imperial cult involved religious practices that honored the emperor's divine status. Deceased emperors could be formally deified, while living emperors might receive divine honors in certain provinces.

The imperial cult connected religion with loyalty to Rome and the emperor. Some people, including early Christians, objected to participating in these practices.

46. Know about Roman slavery.

Slavery was a major part of Roman society and economy. Enslaved people worked in homes, farms, mines, workshops, and other settings.

People could become enslaved through warfare, piracy, birth to an enslaved mother, or other circumstances. Their treatment varied, but they were legally subject to their owners and could experience severe abuse. Some enslaved people were freed through manumission, becoming freedpeople, though they could still face social and legal limitations.

47. Know about the Spartacus Uprising.

The Spartacus Uprising, also called the Third Servile War, occurred from 73 to 71 BCE. Spartacus was an enslaved gladiator who led a major revolt against Rome.

Thousands of enslaved people joined the rebellion. Roman forces eventually defeated it, and many captured rebels were crucified. The uprising exposed the tensions and dangers created by Rome's reliance on slavery.

48. Know about the Fall of Rome.

The term “Fall of Rome” commonly refers to the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 CE, when the Germanic leader Odoacer deposed the last western emperor, Romulus Augustulus.

Important contributing factors included:

• Political instability and frequent changes of emperors.

• Economic problems and heavy military expenses.

• Pressure from migrating and invading groups.

• The difficulty of defending such a large territory.

• Dependence on military leaders and armies whose loyalty could shift.

The eastern half of the empire continued as the Byzantine Empire, with Constantinople as its capital, for nearly another thousand years.

Week 10: Early Christianity

49. Know about Roman rule in Palestine.

Rome gradually established control over the region of Judea and surrounding territories. Roman rule affected taxation, political leadership, and religious life among Jewish communities.

Many Jewish people maintained their religious traditions while disagreeing over how to respond to Roman authority. Some accommodated Roman rule, while others resisted it.

50. Who was Herod the Great?

Herod the Great was a Roman-supported king of Judea who ruled from 37 to 4 BCE. He undertook major building projects, including the expansion of the Second Temple in Jerusalem.

His rule involved political maneuvering to maintain power under Roman authority. His position as a ruler backed by Rome made him controversial among some Jewish people.

51. Know about accommodation and resistance in Palestine.

• Accommodation: Some Jewish leaders and groups cooperated with Roman authorities to preserve stability, maintain influence, or protect religious institutions.

• Resistance: Other groups opposed Roman rule because of taxation, foreign political control, religious tensions, or the actions of Roman officials.

Resistance eventually included the Jewish revolt beginning in 66 CE. Roman forces destroyed the Second Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE.

52. Who was John the Baptist?

John the Baptist was a Jewish preacher who called people to repentance and baptized followers in preparation for God's coming judgment and the arrival of a new spiritual age. He baptized Jesus of Nazareth and was later executed by the ruler Herod Antipas, according to the Gospel accounts.

53. Know about Jesus of Nazareth.

Jesus of Nazareth was a Jewish religious teacher who lived in the first century CE. He preached about the Kingdom of God, repentance, compassion, forgiveness, and care for the poor and marginalized.

His followers came to believe that he was the Messiah and the Son of God. Roman authorities crucified him, a form of execution used by Rome. His followers subsequently proclaimed that he had risen from the dead, and the movement that formed around his teachings developed into Christianity.

54. What was “radical egalitarianism” in early Christianity?

Radical egalitarianism refers to the idea that all people have equal spiritual worth before God, regardless of wealth, social rank, ethnicity, or gender.

Early Christian communities emphasized shared fellowship and the inclusion of people who had less status in Roman society. This challenged some traditional social distinctions, even though Christian communities did not immediately eliminate all inequalities.

55. What was the “Resurrection”?

The Resurrection is the Christian belief that Jesus rose from the dead after his crucifixion. It became the central foundation of Christian faith and the belief that death could be overcome through God's power.

56. What was the “Jesus Movement”? What was its relationship to Judaism?

The Jesus Movement was the early community of people who followed Jesus and believed in his teachings. It began within Judaism, and Jesus and his earliest followers were Jewish.

Early followers continued to draw on Jewish scriptures and beliefs. Over time, disagreements developed over whether non-Jews needed to follow Jewish laws and customs to become followers of Jesus. These debates helped Christianity develop into a distinct religion.

57. Who were the Gentiles?

Gentiles were people who were not Jewish. In early Christianity, the term often referred to non-Jews who joined the Jesus Movement.

The decision to welcome Gentiles without requiring them to follow all Jewish religious laws helped Christianity spread throughout the Roman Empire.

58. Why is Paul of Tarsus important?

Paul of Tarsus was an early Christian missionary and writer who helped spread Christianity beyond Jewish communities.

Originally opposed to the Christian movement, Paul experienced a conversion and became one of its most influential advocates. His letters taught Christian beliefs and addressed problems within early churches. He argued that Gentiles could become Christians without first converting fully to Judaism.

59. Know the importance of women in the Early Church.

Women played important roles in early Christian communities. They served as patrons, hosted gatherings in their homes, helped spread Christian teachings, and supported other believers.

The Christian emphasis on spiritual equality gave women opportunities to participate in religious life. However, women's roles and authority varied across different communities, and early Christianity did not completely remove the gender inequalities of Roman society.

60. Why did the Romans persecute early Christians?

Roman authorities sometimes persecuted Christians because they refused to sacrifice to Roman gods or participate in emperor worship. Officials could interpret these refusals as disloyalty to the state or a threat to public order.

Persecution was not constant or uniform throughout the empire. At different times, local authorities and emperors responded differently. Under emperors such as Nero, Decius, and Diocletian, Christians experienced periods of serious persecution.

61. Why was the “Constantine Conversion” important?

Constantine was a Roman emperor who attributed his victory in 312 CE to the Christian God. His support marked a major turning point in Christianity's relationship with the Roman state.

• In 313 CE, Constantine and Licinius established religious toleration through the Edict of Milan.

• Christianity was no longer illegal, and confiscated Christian property was to be returned.

• Christian communities gained greater security and imperial support.

• Constantine supported the construction of Christian churches and became involved in Christian affairs.

His conversion did not instantly make Christianity the empire's official religion, but it helped transform Christianity from a sometimes-persecuted movement into a religion supported by the emperor.

Most Important Dates to Memorize