Notes on European Imperialism in Africa

Independence and Exploitation

• In 1960, 17 African nations marked 50 years of independence from European colonialism.
• European imperialism exploited Africa's resources.
• Dreams of independence were short-lived, and euphoria quickly disappeared.
• Liberation led to a new scramble for resources.

The Scramble for Africa

• The 1880s and 1890s brought upheaval to Africa, with villages destroyed and political systems dismantled.
• Foreign soldiers arrived with advanced weaponry.
• Armed resistance failed, and within 20 years, 90% of Africa was under European occupation.

Gunboat Diplomacy

• The British used threats of war to force local chiefs to sign treaties.
• The Industrial Revolution in Europe drove the need for raw materials from Africa.
• Palm and peanut oil greased the engines of the revolution.
• Rubber was needed for transportation, and Europe's middle class demanded luxuries.
• This era marked the dawn of industrial-scale production, capitalist economies, and international trade.
• Africa possessed diamonds, gold, cobalt, cocoa, and strategic trade routes, increasing its value in the industrial era.
• Africa became a market for European goods.

African Involvement

• Africans wanted to trade and sell their labor.
• People from Malawi and Northern Rhodesia migrated to South Africa.
• The scramble for Africa was not just about economics but also about political supremacy in Europe.
• Germany rose after the Franco-Prussian War, and France sought to regain its glory.
• Italy also grew in strength.

The Act of Berlin

• In February 1885, the Act of Berlin was an agreement to abolish slavery and allow free trade.
• It also divided Africa among European powers, turning trading partners into subjects of empire.
• The Act legalized the scramble for Africa, carving up thousands of African political units.
• Borders were drawn without regard for geographical or cultural realities.
• Africans were unaware of the Berlin Conference and only saw the consequences.

Justifications for Colonialism

• European powers claimed to bring civilization and Christianity to Africa.
• The concept of the "white man's burden" was used to justify colonialism.
• Missionaries provided insights into living conditions and social services.
• Europe viewed Africa as a "dark continent" in need of enlightenment.

Racism and Colonialism

• Colonial service was not universally seen as racist.
• Apartheid in South Africa exemplified racism.
• Racism was inherent in the colonial system, creating a sense of inferiority among the dominated population.
• White supremacy was practiced in all colonies.

Division of Africa

• Britain and France controlled the majority of African territory.
• Britain held key ports and settler colonies.
• France controlled North Africa and large federations in West and Central Africa.
• Belgium controlled the Congo.
• Ethiopia and Liberia remained autonomous.

Economic Exploitation

• The abolition of slavery in the 19th century did not bring freedom but new masters.
• Intensive exploitation of gold, diamonds, cocoa, ivory, rubber, and cotton occurred.
• Britain became a manufacturing powerhouse, dominating cotton and clothing exports.
• France focused on ground nut and cotton production but struggled with profitability due to administrative costs.

Cultural Assimilation

• France aimed to assimilate populations, remodeling African towns after French cities.
• The more French a person became, the better their opportunities.
• French cultural assimilation failed, and heavy-handed rule created grievances.
• Remote communities evaded French influence, and only a few in Senegal gained a political voice.

British Colonial Rule

• The British rejected cultural colonization but it still occurred.
• Some Africans admired British culture, education, and institutions.
• British officials maintained close contact with local populations, learning local languages.
• Indirect control through local leaders fostered tribal enmity.
• African leaders working for the British lacked credibility.

King Leopold and the Congo

• King Leopold II of Belgium founded the Congo Free State, promising to civilize Africa.
• His reign was brutal, with the population halved due to forced labor and atrocities.
• People were forced to collect rubber, and those who resisted faced severe punishment.
• Reports of atrocities led to international exposure.
• The Belgian government eventually repossessed the Congo.

Unity in Colonial Practices

• Taxation and forced labor were common practices in European colonies.
• Africans perceived a unity in the colonial system.

Impact of Colonialism

• Rapid development came at the expense of personal freedoms.
• Infrastructure was designed to benefit the European project.
• Roads and railways facilitated the extraction of resources, unlike in India where infrastructure linked towns internally.

World Wars

• World War I and World War II called on Africans to fight for their colonial powers.
• Hundreds of thousands of Africans died in the fighting.
• After World War II, reforms were introduced, but it was too late to maintain loyalty to the empire.

African Nationalism

• World War II undermined the invincibility of Europeans.
• Africans who fought in the war became politicized and joined the struggle for independence.
• The United Nations promised self-sovereignty and addressed the grievances of colonized peoples.

Economic Factors

• Economic depression in Europe and the high costs of colonial administrations drove change.
• War-torn economies struggled to maintain colonies.
• Africa fed a hungry Britain during this period.

Seeds of Downfall

• Exposure to world events planted the seeds of the colonial powers' downfall.
• A new sense of dignity and self-respect emerged among Africans.

Independence Movements

• Colonial rule produced African nationalist intellectuals and a literate working class.
• They were inspired by nationalist movements in Egypt and Algeria.
• The United Nations and the civil rights movement focused attention on black rights.
• In 1957, Ghana became the first sub-Saharan state to gain independence under Kwame Nkrumah.
• Nkrumah envisioned a United States of Africa.

Decolonization

• European governments had little choice but to work with nationalists.
• Pressure for decolonization increased after World War II.
• Harold Macmillan's "wind of change" speech signaled the end of the colonial venture.
• Many territories gained independence without bloodshed.
• 1960 was hailed as the year of Africa.

Cold War Influence

• The Cold War saw the US and the Soviet Union vying for influence in Africa.
• Coups were organized to install favorable leaders, destabilizing new nations.
• Patrice Lumumba of Congo was labeled a communist and assassinated with Western support.

Post-Independence Struggles

• Newly sovereign states faced power struggles and ethnic conflicts.
• Many countries experienced military coups.
• Former British territories were torn apart by ethnic violence due to ruling by proxy.

French Influence

• France maintained control through unseen influence in national affairs.
• Promises of cleanup and real independence were made but not fully realized.
• Domination of resources continued to fuel violence.

Economic Exploitation Continues

• Deals between African rulers, foreign multinationals, and governments led to the plunder of commodities.
• Africa became the largest recipient of external aid, but much wealth was lost through illicit capital flows.
• A shadow financial system built on the ruins of colonialism allowed foreign banks and multinationals to avoid paying taxes.
• China entered the scene, vying for African resources, which pushed prices globally.

Hope for the Future

• Some African countries, like Botswana and Senegal, have achieved success.
• Africa is embracing education, modernity, and democracy.
• There is hope in the new professional classes.
• Real independence requires safeguarding natural riches, prioritizing national interests, and fair trade and development.
• African leadership must take responsibility for the future.
• Natural resources should become opportunities for better tomorrows under democracy and the rule of law.