Chapter 28 Notes: Relative Clauses

Introduction to Relative Clauses in Latin

  • Initial Introduction: Topics regarding relative clauses were first introduced in Chapter 13 of the Oxford Latin Course.

  • Definition: A relative clause begins with a relative pronoun. In English, these are represented by words such as ‘who’, ‘which’, ‘whom’, ‘whose’, and ‘that’.

  • Antecedents: A relative pronoun refers back to a specific word located in another clause, which is known as its ‘antecedent’.     * Example: "I saw a woman who was running towards the road." In this instance, ‘woman’ is the antecedent for the relative pronoun ‘who’.

  • Adjectival Nature: Relative clauses serve to add more information about a person or thing. Because they describe a noun (the antecedent), they are considered adjectival in nature.

  • Sentential Antecedents: Not every antecedent is a single word. In some cases, the relative pronoun refers to an entire fact or an entire preceding clause.     * Example 1: "I saw a man litter, which really annoyed me." (The act of littering is what was annoying).     * Example 2: "The event was cancelled, which was disappointing." (The cancellation of the event is what was disappointing).

Rules of Grammatical Agreement

  • Gender and Number: A relative pronoun must agree with its antecedent in both gender (masculine, feminine, or neuter) and number (singular or plural).

  • Case Determination: Unlike gender and number, the case of a relative pronoun is NOT determined by the antecedent. Instead, the case is determined by the specific grammatical role the pronoun plays within its own relative clause.

  • General Usage: Relative pronouns are used in various cases for the same logical reasons as any other noun or pronoun (e.g., accusative for a direct object, ablative for an instrument).

Morphology and Declension of quġ, quae, quod

  • Overview: The relative pronoun is translated as ‘who’ or ‘which’. The forms show similarities to the demonstrative pronoun is, ea, id.

  • Form Patterns:     * Some forms resemble first and second declension endings (e.g., quam, quńs).     * Other forms resemble third declension endings (e.g., quem, quibus).     * Almost all forms begin with the letters qu-. The exceptions are the genitive and dative singular forms.

  • Declension Chart:     * Singular:         * Nominative: Masculine: quġ | Feminine: quae | Neuter: quod         * Accusative: Masculine: quem | Feminine: quam | Neuter: quod         * Genitive: Masculine: cuius | Feminine: cuius | Neuter: cuius         * Dative: Masculine: cuġ | Feminine: cuġ | Neuter: cuġ         * Ablative: Masculine: quń | Feminine: quā | Neuter: quń     * Plural:         * Nominative: Masculine: quġ | Feminine: quae | Neuter: quae         * Accusative: Masculine: quńs | Feminine: quās | Neuter: quae         * Genitive: Masculine: quńrum | Feminine: quārum | Neuter: quńrum         * Dative: Masculine: quibus | Feminine: quibus | Neuter: quibus         * Ablative: Masculine: quibus | Feminine: quibus | Neuter: quibus

Usage by Case: Nominative and Accusative

  • Nominative Forms: These are used when the relative pronoun is the subject of the relative clause.     * Example: Scintilla, quae epistolam nńndum accēperat, trĦstis erat. (Scintilla, who had not yet received a letter, was sad.)     * Comparison: Flaccus Scintillae, quae epistolam nńndum accēperat, dĦxit. (Flaccus spoke to Scintilla, who had not yet received a letter.)

  • Accusative Forms: These are typically translated as ‘whom’ or ‘which’. In formal English, ‘who’ is strictly a subject form, while ‘whom’ is the objective form.     * Direct Object Example: amĦcĦ quńs in viā vĦdimus nńs salťtāvērunt. (The friends whom we saw on the road greeted us.)     * Object of Preposition Example: oppidum ad quod contendēbam adhťc longē aberat. (The town to which I was journeying was still far away.)

Usage by Case: Genitive, Dative, and Ablative

  • Genitive Forms: These are typically translated as ‘of whom’ or ‘of which’.     * General Example: multńs hostēs habeń, paucĦ quńrum mē necāre volunt. (I have many enemies, a few of whom want to kill me.)     * Possessive usage: When the genitive indicates possession, the English word ‘whose’ should be used.     * Possessive Example: canis cuius dominus est amĦcģ meus mē momordit. (The dog, whose master is my friend, bit me / The dog, the master of whom is my friend, bit me.)

  • Dative Forms: These are typically translated as ‘to/for whom’ or ‘to/for which’.     * Indirect Object Example: amĦcus cuġ dńnum dedĦ mihi grātiās ēgit. (The friend to whom I gave a gift thanked me.)     * Reference Example: bēstiam cuġ Ħnsidiās parāveram nńn cēpĦ. (I did not capture the wild animal for which I had prepared a trap.)     * Intransitive Verb Rule: If the dative relative pronoun is the object of an intransitive verb, the English translation often omits the word ‘to’.     * Intransitive Example: homń cuġ occurrĦ nńn meus amĦcus est. (The man whom I met is not my friend.)

  • Ablative Forms: Translation depends on whether there is an accompanying preposition.     * With Preposition: Translate as ‘whom’ or ‘which’ alongside the preposition's meaning.     * Preposition Example: mĦles quńcum pugnābam cecidit. (The soldier with whom I was fighting fell.) Note: quńcum is quń + cum.     * Without Preposition (Instrumental): Use ‘by’, ‘with’, ‘from’, or other appropriate English markers.     * Instrumental Example: gladium quń hostem occĦderat in terram iēcit. (He threw the sword with which he had killed the enemy onto the ground.)

Advanced Grammatical Notes

  • Adjectival Use: Relative pronouns can function as adjectives, directly modifying a noun within their own clause.

Chapter 28 Checklist and Study Guidance

  • Vocabulary: Students must learn the specific vocabulary provided for Chapter 28.

  • Conceptual Understanding: It is not required to master every complex detail of relative clauses immediately. These concepts will be revisited in future presentations. Students are encouraged to revisit these materials later as their understanding matures.

  • Work in Progress (WIP) Questions:     1. Can you translate the Latin sentences in Chapter 28?     2. Can you successfully complete the exercises for Chapter 28?     3. Can you translate English words and phrases into Latin?

  • Exercises: The chapter includes example exercises for translating English phrases into Latin.