Science, Technology, and Society: Historical Antecedents and Cradles of Early Science

Course Overview: Science, Technology, and Society

  • Course Code & Title: STS 101 – Science, Technology and Society

  • Academic Context: Offered at Bulacan State University, College of Science (City of Malolos, Bulacan).

  • Credit Units: 3 units.

  • Regulatory Mandate: Aligned with CHED Memorandum Order (CMO) No. 20, s. 2013.

  • Core Definition: The course examines the dynamic interactions between science and technology and the broader social, cultural, political, and economic contexts that shape and are shaped by them.

  • Learning Objectives:

    • Describe the development of Science and Technology across the Ancient, Middle, and Modern Ages.

    • Identify pivotal inventions and discoveries that altered the world throughout history.

Development of Science in Asia

  • Overview of Asia as a Scientific Hub:

    • Asia is the largest continent in the world and serves as the cradle for many ancient civilizations.

    • It hosted complex cultural, economic, scientific, and political activities across all historical epochs.

  • Definition of Civilization: A complex human society characterized by developed arts, sciences, social hierarchies, and organizational systems.

Cradles of Early Science: Sumerian Civilization

  • Geographical & Historical Context:

    • Located on the southernmost tip of ancient Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) around 3500 BCE.

    • The central urban center of this civilization was the city of Sumer.

  • Key Inventions & Technological Innovations:

    • The Wheel (c. 3500 BCE): Developed to address human physical limitations regarding weight capacity during land transport. Sumerians conceived connecting a non-moving platform to a rolling cylinder.

    • The Sail & Plow:

    • Sail: Enabled long-distance maritime trade and navigation.

    • Plow: Engineered out of wood to till and turn soil efficiently for agricultural cultivation. One end was curved to cut into the soil, pulled directly by humans or draft oxen. Replaced the slow method of using sticks or animal horns to poke individual seed holes.

    • Sexagesimal Numerical System:

    • Base-60 numeral system (counting in units and intervals of 60) developed during the 3rd millennium BC.

    • Served as the mathematical foundation for dividing the circumference of a circle into 360∘360^\circ (60×660 \times 6) and establishing the standard 60-minute duration for an hour.

    • 360-Day Calendar: Formulated to track seasonal agricultural cycles.

    • Cuneiform Writing System:

    • The earliest known formal writing system, developed in the ancient Middle East. The term derives from Latin and Middle French roots meaning "wedge-shaped" (a designation used by modern scholars from the early 18th century onward).

    • Utilized triangular wedge instruments (sharpened reeds) to carve word-pictures and symbols onto wet clay tablets, which were subsequently sun-dried to create permanent records.

    • Originated from simple pictographs (symbols representing real objects like water or snakes).

    • Initially contained up to 2,000 distinct symbols standing for ideas and sounds, which was streamlined over time to approximately 700 symbols.

    • Used primarily by specialized scribes to preserve trade records, economic exchanges, historical narratives, and everyday administrative affairs.

Cradles of Early Science: Babylonian Civilization

  • Geographical & Historical Context:

    • Emerged from approximately 3500 BC to 500 BC along the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in central-southern Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq).

    • An ancient Akkadian-speaking empire and cultural sphere.

  • Agricultural Engineering:

    • Designed advanced irrigation networks, digging canals and constructing earthen dikes to supply agricultural crops and sustain livestock.

  • Astronomy & Mathematics:

    • Innovated upon the Sumerian sexagesimal system.

    • Babylonian astronomers systematically cataloged stars and planets, mapping celestial movements across 12 equally spaced constellations, which formed the foundation of the zodiac.

  • Prominent Leaders & Contributions:

    • King Hammurabi (reigned 1792–1750 BC):

    • Formulated a codified legal structure in 1790 BC known as Hammurabi's Code, comprising 282 written laws designed to maintain peace, order, and social governance.

    • Recognized as one of the earliest legal codes prioritizing physical retaliatory punishment. Law 196 states: "If a man put out the eye of another man, his eye shall be put out" (commonly summarized as "an eye for an eye").

    • King Nebuchadnezzar II (reigned 604–562 BC):

    • The longest-reigning and most powerful monarch of the Neo-Babylonian Empire.

    • Renowned as a monumental builder credited with creating the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World.

    • Hanging Gardens Architecture: Tiered, ascending terraced gardens containing diverse trees, shrubs, and vines constructed over raised mud-brick structures. Derived from the Greek word \text{kremast\acute{o}s} (meaning "overhanging"). Built near modern-day Hillah in the Babil province of Iraq.

Cradles of Early Science: Egyptian Civilization

  • Geographical & Historical Context:

    • Flourished along the Nile River in northeastern Africa between 5000 BC and 3100 BC.

    • The Nile served as the primary life force, supplying essential water for dense agricultural settlements.

  • Materials & Manufacturing Technology:

    • Produced advanced earthenware, pottery, and refined metal tools, weapons, and farming implements.

    • Constructive architecture utilized native reeds and air-dried mud bricks.

    • Manufactured papyrus writing sheets derived from processed Papyrus reeds grown along the Nile, first manufactured during the 4th millennium BCE.

    • Developed Hieroglyphs, a formal written script composed of symbolic ideograms and phonograms.

  • Timekeeping & Calendar:

    • Devised a 365-day solar calendar cycle.

    • Composed of 3 distinct agricultural seasons lasting 120 days each (360 days total), plus an intercalary month of 5 epagomenal days set outside the main calendar year.

  • Historical Periods of Egyptian Science:

    1. Earliest Egyptian Period (3300–3100 BC):

    • Emergence of formal writing systems.

    • Early astronomical studies focusing on stellar observation, leading to the creation of the first recorded celestial calendar.

    1. Golden Age:

    • Characterized by major technological and architectural innovations.

    • Construction of the Giza Necropolis pyramids (c. 2600 BC).

    • The Great Pyramid of Giza (Pyramid of Khufu / Cheops): The oldest, largest pyramid, and the only intact surviving structure of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Serves as physical evidence of advanced mastery in geometry, exact measurement, engineering design, architectural planning, and massive labor organization.

    1. Period of New Kingdom (1567–1085 BC):

    • Expansion of foreign trade network involving pottery, earthenware, fine linens, perfumed oils, ointments, and luxury jewelry.

    • Technological advancement in ship design, building large wooden vessels constructed from bundled papyrus reeds lashed together.

    • Transitioned from direct barter trade to standardized commerce utilizing precision balance scales and standard weight units.

Cradles of Early Science: Greek Civilization

  • Geographical & Historical Context:

    • Emerged around 1100 BC, laying the foundational pillars of modern Western intellectual thought, philosophy, and scientific inquiry.

  • Mechanical & Engineering Innovations:

    • Water Alarm Clock: Utilized controlled water drops falling at calculated intervals into containers/drums to trigger acoustic sound alerts.

    • Windmills: Applied mechanical wind energy to agricultural grain processing and milling.

  • Prominent Thinkers & Scientific Contributors:

    • Thales of Miletus (c. 624 – c. 546 BC): Recognized as the first formal Greek philosopher, mathematician, and astronomer. Famous for the philosophical maxim "Know thyself" inscribed on the Temple of Apollo at Delphi.

    • Socrates (470–399 BC): Classical Athenian philosopher regarded as a founder of Western moral philosophy and ethics. Left no written works; his teachings survived exclusively through accounts written by students such as Plato and Xenophon.

    • Hippocrates of Cos / Hippocrates II (c. 400 BC):

    • Known as the "Father of Medicine" and founder of the Hippocratic School of Medicine during the Age of Pericles.

    • Pioneered the separation of medicine from religious superstition, establishing that diseases have natural physiological causes.

    • Taught that the human body possesses biological self-healing mechanisms.

    • Created the Hippocratic Oath to define ethical standards for medical practitioners.

    • Aristotle (384–322 BC):

    • Philosopher and naturalist who conducted systematic empirical investigations across biology, zoology, and botany (gathering, describing, and classifying organisms).

    • Author of foundational texts covering physics, metaphysics, logic, ethics, aesthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, and political governance.

    • Archimedes of Syracuse (287–212 BC):

    • Mathematician, physicist, mechanical engineer, and astronomer.

    • Designed complex machines including the Archimedes' screw pump, compound pulley systems, and defensive military war engines to defend Syracuse.

    • Formulated Archimedes' Principle in his treatise On Floating Bodies, establishing that any body submerged in a fluid experiences an upward buoyant force equal to the weight of the fluid displaced:       Fbuoyant=Wdisplaced fluidF_{\text{buoyant}} = W_{\text{displaced fluid}}

    • Pythagoras of Samos:

    • Mathematician who formalized geometry into an axiomatic logical system.

    • Formulated the Pythagorean Theorem for Euclidean right-angled triangles:       a2+b2=c2a^2 + b^2 = c^2       where cc represents the hypotenuse length, and aa and bb represent the remaining side lengths.

    • Claudius Ptolemy (c. AD 100 – c. 170):

    • Greco-Roman astronomer, mathematician, geographer, and astrologer.

    • Authored the Almagest, a comprehensive 2nd-century astronomical treatise detailing mathematical models of planetary paths and stellar motions.

Cradles of Early Science: Roman Civilization

  • Administrative & Technological Innovations:

    • Acta Diurna (Daily Public Records):

    • Emerged around 131 BC as the world's first proto-newspaper or official public gazette.

    • Inscribed on stone or metal plates and posted in heavy foot-traffic areas to inform citizens of imperial announcements, political decisions, military victories, gladiatorial contests, legal proceedings, births, deaths, and human-interest stories.

    • The Codex:

    • Replaced fragile scroll rolls by binding folded papyrus or parchment sheets together within protective bound covers made of animal skin, creating the first modern book structure.

    • Roman Numeral System:

    • Engineered a standardized numerical notation system tailored for empire-wide administrative bookkeeping, commerce, legal contracts, and military communications.

Cradles of Early Science: Chinese Civilization

  • Historical Context:

    • Recognized as the oldest continuous civilization in Asia.

    • Major early global contributions include silk production, acupuncture therapy (inserting thin needles to manage internal ailments), and tea brewing (processed from dried leaves, first consumed by a Chinese emperor).

  • Dynastic Progression & Scientific Contributions:

    1. Shang Dynasty (First Recorded Dynasty):

    • Mastery of bronze metallurgy (vessels, ritual containers).

    • Development of early sericulture (silk production) and establishment of a formal character writing system.

    • Sericulture Origin Myth: Legend attributes silk weaving to Lady Hsi-Ling-Shih (wife of the legendary Yellow Emperor, c. 3000 BC), who is venerated as the "Goddess of Silk" for inventing the loom and sericulture processes.

    1. Chou Dynasty:

    • Major advances in agriculture: introduction of ox-drawn plows and specialized iron-tipped farm tools.

    • Astrological and astronomical monitoring: recording solar eclipses as early as 800 BC.

    1. Ch'in Dynasty:

    • Source of the name "China".

    • Emperor Shih Huang Ti (First Emperor): Established centralized rule, standardizing written script, systems of weights and measures, wagon wheel axle widths, and road dimensions.

    • Initiated the monumental construction of The Great Wall of China, an extensive defensive infrastructure built of stone, brick, rammed earth, wood, and local materials.

    1. Han Dynasty:

    • Discovery of botanical and animal-derived pharmacological drugs.

    • Invention of the world's first seismograph ("earthquake weather clock") to detect distant seismic disruptions.

    • Development of plant-fiber papermaking techniques and primitive woodblock printing.

    1. T'ang Dynasty:

    • Discoveries in clinical medicine.

    • Invention of Gunpowder by alchemists mixing charcoal, sulfur, and potassium nitrate (KNO3\text{KNO}_3), producing rapid gas generation and thermal explosive energy.

    • Industrial utilization of coal as a high-heat fuel source.

    1. Sung Dynasty:

    • Introduction of state-issued paper currency.

    • Mass distribution of printed Confucian classical texts.

    • Marine engineering: construction of large ocean-going wooden vessels equipped with multi-masted sails.

Science and Technology in the Medieval / Middle Ages

  • Historical Context:

    • The historical era bridging Antiquity and Modernity (c. 5th to 15th century), acting as an intellectual catalyst for early industrial development.

  • Role of Institutional Structures:

    • The Catholic Church & Monasticism: Monastic institutions held wealth and political influence, becoming primary centers of healthcare and preserved learning. Monks laboriously hand-copied classical Greco-Roman manuscripts for posterity, prioritizing theological scholarship over physical sciences.

    • Islamic Golden Age Contributions: Scholars in the Middle East actively preserved, translated, and built upon classical Greco-Roman scientific texts, achieving breakthroughs in optics, astronomy, clinical medicine, and algebra.

  • Transition to Mechanical Power (Pre-Industrial Foundations):

    • Shifted manual hand-labor and animal traction toward simple mechanical systems (levers, compound pulleys, counterweights).

    • Later harnessed environmental kinetic energy using water wheels, windmills, and thermal expansion engines.

  • Pivotal Inventions of the Period:

    • Printing Press (c. 1440):

    • Invented by Johann Gutenberg using movable metal type derived from wooden wine/fruit press mechanics.

    • Allowed uniform casting of metal letters pressed directly onto paper, enabling mass publication of books and accelerating information dissemination across Europe.

    • Compound Microscope (c. 1595):

    • Developed by Dutch spectacle/lens grinders Hans Janssen and his son Zacharias Janssen.

    • Featured a dual-lens optical system expanding magnification beyond the naked eye, opening new pathways for biological research and disease diagnosis.

    • Astronomical Telescope Innovations:

    • Dramatically upgraded by Galileo Galilei.

    • Used to observe celestial phenomena: the four major moons of Jupiter (Galilean moons), the rings/shape of Saturn, lunar topography, sunspots, and the full phase cycle of Venus.

    • Provided empirical observational proof supporting Nicolaus Copernicus' Heliocentric Theory of the solar system.

Science and Technology in Modern Times

  • Historical Context:

    • Driven by 19th-century industrialization, transforming public infrastructure, electrical grids, transport logistics, mass communication, clinical medicine, and industrial food preservation.

  • Key Discoveries & Technological Breakthroughs:

    • Pasteurization:

    • Developed by French biologist, microbiologist, and chemist Louis Pasteur.

    • Solved micro-biological deterioration of dairy products by applying precise thermal heat treatments to destroy pathogenic bacteria (preventing diseases such as diphtheria, typhoid fever, and bacterial food poisoning).

    • Electric Telephone:

    • Patented by Alexander Graham Bell on March 7, 1876.

    • The initial voice transmission occurred three days later to his assistant Thomas Watson, stating: "Mr. Watson—Come here—I want to see you."

    • Penicillin:

    • Discovered in 1928 by Scottish scientist Alexander Fleming after observing that Penicillium mold contamination killed surrounding bacterial colonies in an unwashed Petri dish.

    • Isolated and refined into an effective clinical antibiotic during the late 1930s and early 1940s, reaching mass production by 1944.

    • Kerosene ("Illuminating Oil"):

    • Synthesized by Samuel M. Kier through fractional refining of crude petroleum.

    • Replaced animal fats and whale oil to fuel domestic home lighting systems, later serving as an industrial heating fuel.