Philosophy: Its Nature and Place in Society

The Meanings of Philosophy

  • Etymology: the term philosophy comes from Greek: philia(love)+philia(wisdom)?\text{philia} \text{(love)} + \text{philia} \text{(wisdom)}? (actually philia=love\text{philia} = \text{love}, sophia=wisdom\text{sophia} = \text{wisdom}), yielding the literal definition: philosophy=the love of wisdom or knowledge.\text{philosophy} = \text{the love of wisdom or knowledge}.
  • Limitation of the literal definition: love of wisdom alone does not distinguish philosophy from other inquiries (historians love past events; scientists love the natural world). Question: what does a philosopher love to study?
  • Aristotle’s definition (philosophy as thinking): philosophy=thinking which aims at maximum connected truth about all available experience.\text{philosophy} = \text{thinking which aims at maximum connected truth about all available experience}.
    • Means: a process of search and discovery, seeking connections among all accessible experience as exhaustively and comprehensively as possible, not necessarily achieving a final degree of connectedness but pursuing the process.
  • Bittle’s definition (philosophy as science): \text{Philo}}{sophy} = \text{``science of beings in their ultimate reasons, causes, and principles acquired by the aid of human reason alone''}
    • Philosophy is a science because it is based on knowledge, not mere opinion, theory, or hypothesis.
    • It studies beings: anything that exists, exists, can be thought of, or is known.
    • Key idea: philosophy seeks ultimate causes and principles via human reason alone; faith or divine authority guide believers but are not the method of philosophical inquiry.
  • Five supplementary views of philosophy (Titus & Smith): philosophy is
    • (1) a personal attitude towards life and the universe;
    • (2) a method of reflective thinking and reasoned inquiry;
    • (3) an attempt to gain a view of the whole;
    • (4) the logical analysis of language and clarification of meanings;
    • (5) a group of problems and theories about their solutions.
    • Together these show philosophy’s breadth and centrality to inquiry.
  • Philosophy and science
    • Science: a body of verified, systematized knowledge and a method of obtaining it; aims to discover truth to act on it.
    • Philosophy as science: based on knowledge, uses rational, systematic methods, and shares critical/open-minded attitudes, persistence, willingness to abide by experience and reason, and impartial concern for truth.
    • Similarities to science: organized, systematic pursuit of knowledge; critical, open-minded attitude; aims for an integrated body of knowledge.
    • Differences:
    • Scope: sciences deal with restricted parts of reality; philosophy covers all aspects of human experience (conscience, justice, soul, God).
    • Object of study: sciences focus on the physical; philosophy includes real aspects, possibilities, and meaning.
    • Method: sciences often describe parts; philosophy seeks comprehensive understanding of wholes and interrelationships.
    • Values: sciences strive for objectivity and may minimize the personal factor; philosophy engages personality, values, and meaning.
    • Observing vs. evaluating: science observes and controls; philosophy criticizes, evaluates, and integrates.
    • Note: these are tendencies and emphases, not hard, exclusive boundaries; many scientists are also philosophers.
  • Functions of philosophy as a science (three main functions)
    • (1) Critical examination of the premises and conclusions of all sciences (biology, physics, sociology, anatomy): test presuppositions; reveal assumptions that may be unprovable or invalid; compare conflicting conclusions across sciences.
    • (2) Synthesis of findings: sciences focus on parts of experience and may give incomplete views; philosophy integrates findings with religious and ethical experiences to understand reality in totality; as Broad put it: The object of philosophy is to take over the results of the various sciences, add to them the results of the religious and ethical experiences of mankind, and then reflect upon the whole.\text{The object of philosophy is to take over the results of the various sciences, add to them the results of the religious and ethical experiences of mankind, and then reflect upon the whole.}
    • (3) Harmonization of sciences: bring different sciences together so they complement or support one another; prevent isolated, distorted views of reality.
    • Additional implication: philosophy informs individuals and their thinking; in liberal education, philosophy helps systematize, assimilate, and evaluate large amounts of knowledge.
    • Practical outcome: philosophical reflection helps individuals gain perspective on life’s dimensions; many modern issues are philosophical in nature (rights, freedom, justice, society, nature); philosophy equips people to face challenges with a broad, integrated view.
  • Philosophy and society
    • What is society? definitions:
    • Webster: "an enduring and cooperating social group whose members have developed organized patterns of relationships through interaction with one another."
    • Sociologists: the broadest grouping sharing habits, ideals, attitudes, living in a territory, and a social unit.
    • Social interaction is complex: requires knowing oneself and others, motives, consequences, and the context of interaction.
    • A rational, mature person needs philosophy to navigate social interaction; personal attitude (biased, righteous, suspicious, etc.) enters decisions and exchanges of ideas.
    • Clear meanings of words and concepts are necessary; logical analysis of language helps reach agreements.
    • Philosophy is a part of individual and social life; the individual influences social processes and vice versa.
    • Brightman’s views:
    • Philosophy is a guide to life.
    • Philosophy as a process of rational experience, searching for truth; philosophizing is a function of the experiencing self trying to understand other processes.
    • Philosophy has a creative function: it can see previous experience from new points of view and discover/create new values and goals for action.
    • Formation of habits, attitudes, ideals, and values: not developed in a social vacuum; influenced by what one sees, hears, and the surrounding social/economic conditions, family, and peers.
    • The rational individual will align actions with principles; values and ideals must be coherent with one’s avowed principles to maintain integrity.
    • Since groups are made of individuals, a group’s philosophy is determined largely by its members’ philosophies; it emerges through interaction (disagreement, agreement, compromise) and then guides group conduct and goals.
  • The value of philosophy
    • In many curricula, philosophy is a core part of liberal education; signals the importance of broad personal development and preparation for vocation.
    • Pythagoras: philosophy seeks knowledge for its own sake, beyond gain or usefulness; it broadens knowledge rather than merely adding to it.
    • Philosophy has intrinsic value akin to the fine arts: pursued for enjoyment and depth, not just practical utility.
    • Philosophy provides a deeper understanding of self, others, the real world, and the meaning of life; helps relate to others, adapt to environment, and live a meaningful life.
    • Exposure to diverse philosophies helps students develop a personal philosophy to guide life decisions; life requires direction and goal-setting.
    • Philosophy lays a strong foundation for profession and daily decision-making by offering an integrated view of human experience.
    • Nicholson’s statement: philosophy widens intellectual horizons and deepens understanding and sympathy; breaks the “yoke of conventional custom”; frees the life of the spirit to enable a good life.
    • Sullivan’s caution: we may already hold a philosophy (one’s own or others’); we should be critically conscious of what we hold unconsciously to avoid being ruled by hidden, unexamined beliefs.
    • McCall: the thinking person cannot avoid philosophizing; the choice is whether to do so openly and critically or in a naive, half-baked way.
    • Cahn: a wise person possesses philosophical understanding; cannot be intimidated by dogmatic statements; philosophy serves as a bulwark against mental servitude and provides a rational framework for thinking and acting intelligently.
  • Attitudes Towards Philosophy (common objections and replies)
    • Objections
    • (1) Philosophy is difficult to understand.
    • (2) It is impractical or out of touch with reality.
    • (3) There is no progress in philosophy because philosophers disagree.
    • (4) Critical examination of fundamental principles is harmful to the individual and society (especially ethics and social order).
    • Replies and clarifications
    • Difficulty: abstract thinking; you must learn new ideas to grow intellectually; ideas are a foundation for action and values.
    • Impracticality: ideas illuminate ends and values beyond mere means; humans live by ends and ideals as well as material goods.
      • Quote idea-based view: "Ideas are the foundation of action… a person is not likely to make any determined effort to act unless he believes in something." (paraphrase from Titus & Smith)
    • No progress due to disagreement: disagreement stimulates thought; forces restatement and refinement of views; leads to progress through challenge and revision.
    • Ethical principles’ examination threatened stability: philosophy often defends and strengthens principles when scrutinized; sound principles survive critical testing; unsound ones lose support.
    • Additional point on order: resisting change to maintain order may hinder development; growth requires critical examination of existing norms.
    • Conclusion: philosophy will always influence life; a rational being will philosophize and be shaped by his or her reasoning, consciously or unconsciously.
  • Summary (key takeaways)
    • We live in a world of apprehension and uncertainty; everyone needs a philosophy to guide thinking and actions, and to give life direction and meaning.
    • Definitions of philosophy emphasize breadth and depth; philosophy is a comprehensive science with attitude, method, and goal similar to science, yet broader in scope and concern.
    • Functions of philosophy: critique of science; synthesis of findings; harmonization of knowledge and values; helps individuals and society understand and navigate life.
    • Philosophy’s value to society: essential in liberal education and personal development; shapes decisions and worldviews; helps face timeless issues like rights, freedom, justice.
    • Negative attitudes stem from misconceptions; when properly understood, philosophy contributes significantly to human life.
  • Study Guide (terms and questions to review)
    • Terms to understand: Philosophy,Science,Value,Society,Attitude,Liberal education.\text{Philosophy}, \text{Science}, \text{Value}, \text{Society}, \text{Attitude}, \text{Liberal education}.
    • Questions to answer:
    • 1. Why is there a need for a person to have a certain kind of philosophy?
    • 2. What can you say about the coverage or concerns of philosophy? Explain.
    • 3. In what aspects is philosophy similar to science? In what respects are they different?
    • 4. What are the functions of philosophy to science? How about to the person and society?